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 What if the "Big Bang" was not the beginning point  of our observable universe?

Authors

By 

*Rupak Bhattacharya ,BSc (Calcutta University), MSc (Jadavpur University) ,of residence  7/51 Purbapalli, Post office -Sodepur, District 24 parganas ( north) Kolkata -110, West Bengal, India Theoretical physicist ।( No institutional affiliation )

** ProfessorDr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD (University of Calcutta) ,FICPath, WBMES (Retired), a Retired Professor and Head of Pathology from West Bengal Medical Education Services cadre of Department of Health and Family Welfare of  Govt of West Bengal , India **Upasana Bhattacharya, a  4th semister student of B.DES ( Fashion Design course )UPES university, Derhadoon, uttarakhand, India , ***Ritwik Bhattacharya, B Com ( Calcutta University) ****Aiyshi Mukherjee , a BSC Biotechnology students of Kalyani University, West Bengal ***Rupsha Bhattacharya BA honors student of West Bengal State University Barasat , ****Debasish Mukherjee BSc (Calcutta University) ****Dalia Mukherjee BA honors (Calcutta university)  ***Hindol Banerjee BA (honors) West Bengal State University Barasat north 24 parganas West Bengal India

*** Of residence 7/51 Purbapalli , Post office --Sodepur, district 24 parganas

( north) Kolkata -110 ,West Bengal, India

(No institutional affiliation)

**** Of residence Swamiji Nagar, South Habra, District 24 Parganas ( north ),West Bengal ,India(No institutional affiliation)

Corresponding author -: Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD university of Calcutta FICPath WBMES Retiered

Emailprofpkb@yahoo.co.in 

 mobile phone number +91 9231510435

Copyright of this Manuscript belong primarily to Prof. Dr. Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya and to authors as per serial orders under strict Copyright acts and laws of Intellectual Property Rights of World Intellectual Property Rights organisations ( WIPO) , RDF copyright rights acts and laws and PIP copy right acts of USA 2012 where Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya is registered member.

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Introduction-: 

The greatest discovery in the history of science is that there was a day without a yesterday. The Universe had not existed forever. It was born? Or It was created by some creator ? Or it was just be ?  All matter today what we see , all energy in the observable universe, space , all voids and even time, bursted out  into being in a titanic fireball we call the moment of  the Big Bang the "planck's epoch" ,and that is estimated did happen approximately 13.82 billion years ago. The fireball then expanded in all directions and, out of the cooling debris , dark matters ( both cold and hot or mixed dark matter) , there congealed all nebulas ,all galaxies – great islands of stars and mixed dark matters ; two or three trillions of them, of which our spiral Galaxy "Milky Way " is but not only one spiral galaxies, there are so many spiral galaxies we know it today.

Whatever way you look at it, the idea of the Universe popping into existence like a rabbit out of a hat is bonkers. For this reason, scientists had to be dragged kicking and screaming to it. The last thing they wanted to answer was the very awkward scientific questions : what did happen then before the Big Bang? Was there really a Big Bang? Was there only one BigBang or were there multiple Big Bangs? Was there only a single observed universe or there are multiverse buble universes??

In recent decades, the idea has taken hold that the Universe began with an ultra-brief burst of a massive Blackhole ( a singlarity)  with super-fast expansion and the expansion is now forever . So violent was this ‘inflation’ that it’s been likened to the explosion of several few thousands Hydrogen-bombs compared with the mere stick of dynamite of the more sedate Big Bang expansion that took over when inflation ran out of steam.

So next questions comes automatically to authors like us 1) where did the Big Bang actually took place in time'lines ? 2) Why didn’t the Big Bang produced  equal amounts of matter and antimatter? 3) where then  did antimatter disappear ?4) is there another universe made of antimatter or mirror matter? 5) were there multiple buble universes one of which is our universe? 6) Does white whole exist as gate way to another universe ?

Big Bang or Big Bounce or other?

Did the universe start with a BigBang  orgin or was it a Big Bounce—or something else entirely? The question of our origins is one of the thorniest in highest quality physics, with few true answers and lots of speculations and strong feelings. The most popular theory by far is the Big Bang Singularity with inflationary theory of Alan Guth (This Big Bang theory brought so many Nobel p rizes in physics since 1901  that very few scientists are found  now against the theory) , the notion that the cosmos blew up in size in the first few fractions of a second after it was born in a Big Bang epoch. But an underdog idea persist that the birth of this universe was not actually the beginning—that an earlier version of spacetime had existed and contracted toward a “Big Crunch" then flipped and started expanding into what we see today. Now a new study suggesting a twist on this “bounce” scenario has supporters excited and inflation proponents newly inflamed over a “rival” they say they have repeatedly disproved, only to have it keep bouncing back.Inflation has many admirers because the rapid expansion it posits seems to explain numerous features of the universe, such as the fact that it appears relatively flat (as opposed to curved, on large scales) and roughly uniform in all directions (there is roughly the same amount of stuff everywhere, again on large scales). Both conditions result when regions of space that ended up very far away initially started out close together and in contact with one another. Yet the latest versions of the theory seem to suggest—even require—that inflation created not just our universe but an infinite

landscape of universe in which possible type of universe with every possible set of physical laws and characteristics formed somewhere. Some scientists like this implication because it could explain why our particular universe, with its seemingly random yet perfectly calibrated-to-life conditions, exists—if every type of cosmos is out there, it is no wonder that ours is, too. But other physicists find the multiverse idea repulsive, in part because if the theory predicts that every possibility will come to pass, it does not uniquely foretell a universe like the one we have.

Was it a Big Bang or Big Bounce ?

"The Big Bounce" concept started in 2017 -2018 remain still a hypothesized cosmological model for the origin of the observed universe and is under active investigation now. It was originally suggested as a phase of the cyclic model or a kind of oscillatory universe interpretation of the Big Bang, where the first cosmological event was the result of the collapse of a previous universe existed in forward time scale . Actually such a conceptual persisted beforehand,  but the very concept receded from serious consideration in the early 1980s after the inflation theory emerged as a solution to the horizon problems of the universe, which had arisen from advances in observations revealing the large-scale structure of the universe. In the early 2000s, inflation was found by some theorists to be  much problematic and unfalsifiable in that its various parameters could be adjusted to fit any observations, so that the properties of the observable universe are a matter of chance in Big Bang model . Alternative pictures including a Big Bounce may provide a predictive and falsifiable possible solution to the horizon problems 

The concept of the Big Bounce envisions the Big Bang as the beginning of a period of expansion that followed by a period of contraction. In this view, one could talk of a Big Crunch ( another singlarity) followed by a Big Bang, or more simply, a Big Bounce. This suggests that we could be living at any point in an infinite sequence of universes, or conversely the current universe could be the very first iteraction. However, if the condition of the interval phase "between bounces", considered the 'hypothesis of the primeval atom', is taken into full contingency such enumeration may be meaningless because that condition could represent a singularity in time at each instance, if such perpetual return was absolute and undifferentiated.The main idea behind the quantum theory of a Big Bounce is that, as density approaches infinity, the behavior of the quantum foam changes. All the so-called fundamental physical constants, including the speed of light in a vacuum, need not remain constant during a Big Crunch, especially in the time interval smaller than that in which measurement may never be possible (one unit of Planck time, roughly 10*−43 seconds) spanning or bracketing the point of spanning or bracketing the point of inflection.

But now, we authors are so questioning the inflationary orthodoxy and advocating a fresh look at alternative models in which the Big Bang was actually a ‘Big Bounce’ from an earlier, contracting, phase of the Universe or not . “Crucially, my co authors  and I are proposing an observational test capable of distinguishing between the possibilities,”

The Big Bounce describes the idea that the Universe's rapid expansion was a reaction to a period of rapid contraction 

The Big Bounce describes the idea that the Universe’s rapid expansion was a reaction to a period of rapid contraction  

Inexplicably big gaps

One cosmic observation that any scenario must explain is why the Universe is so remarkably uniform: specifically, why the temperature of the heat afterglow of the Big Bang is pretty much the same everywhere and why the number of galaxies in a given volume is also the same everywhere.

This is yet a big puzzle to us because if the expansion of the Universe is imagined running backwards to the Big Bang, like a movie playing in reverse, it becomes clear that regions of the Universe that today are widely separated were not in contact with each other at the beginning. In other words, there has been insufficient time since the birth of the Universe for any influence travelling at the cosmic speed limit (the speed of light) to pass between them. How, then, could heat have passed between such regions in order for their temperatures to equalise?

The standard explanation may be that the Universe was far smaller early on than we imagine if we run that movie in reverse. If it was smaller, then bits of the Universe that are today widely separated would have been closer together. But, if the Universe started off smaller earlier on, it must have expanded faster in order to reach its current size in 13.82 billion years.

Such a period of super-fast expansion, occurring in the first split-second of the Universe’s existence, was also proposed by the Russian physicist Alexei Starobinsky in 1979 and the American physicist Prof Alan Guth in 1980. This inflation was driven by the vacuum. Not the vacuum that we see around us today but a super-high-energy version. This was because the ‘inflationary vacuum’ contained a so-called scalar field, which, in common with the Higgs field, discovered at the Large Hadron Collider near Geneva in 2012, had a non-zero energy everywhere. Was it Dark energy?

Dark energy is hiding in our Universe: 

here’s how we’ll find it Radical ideas was : The number that holds the Universe together is changing. The super-high-energy inflationary vacuum had however some remarkable properties. First, it had repulsive gravity, which caused the universe to expand – and the more of it there was, the greater was its repulsion and the faster it expanded. Second, when the inflationary vacuum doubled its volume, it doubled its energy; when it tripled its volume, it tripled its energy and so on.The phenomenon can be explained in following ways.  Imagine if you had a stack of banknotes between your hands and you pulled your hands apart and the result was the creation of more banknotes. Physicists, not surprisingly, refer to inflation as the ‘ultimate free lunch’.But the inflationary vacuum, which contained only energy but not matter, was a ‘quantum’ thing (quantum theory is our best description of the microscopic world of atoms and their constituents). And quantum things are fundamentally unpredictable. So, at random locations all over the inflationary vacuum, bits ‘decayed’ into normal, everyday vacuum.

Picture it as a vast ocean in which bubbles form constantly. Inside each bubble, the enormous energy of the inflationary vacuum had to go somewhere. It went into creating matter and heating it to a ferociously high temperature – in short, into creating a big bang. We live inside one of these big bang bubbles in the inflationary vacuum.

Inflation decays at different rates in different locations, leading to ‘bubbles’ in the inflationary vacuum, in other words, creating the potential for a multiverse, the Big Bang is then not a one-off event. Big bangs are going off like fireworks across the inflationary vacuum. And all this could have been started by a small piece of inflationary vacuum – with a mass-energy of as little as a kilogram – popping into existence out of nothing, which, incredibly, is permitted by the laws of quantum theory. Inflation, once started, goes on forever since new vacuum is created faster than it’s eaten away.

But, according to us authors, the inflationary scenario has still many problems. though awarded many Nobel prizes in physics “ Even After 42 years of proposed theory of inflation by Prof Alan Guth , we have yet no evidence of the existence of the ‘inflaton’ field decay  that drived inflation, as we do find of the Higgs felid in Higgs particles decay,” Also, there is an infinity of ways in which the inflaton field can decay, exiting inflationary expansion and starting Big Bang expansion. Physicists imagine a mathematical ‘potential’, rather like a ski slope, down which the inflaton field slides, reducing its energy to zero. But the ski slope can have a different shape in different locations. “This means to us that inflation will continue for longer in some places than others, greatly changing nature of the resultant space-time,. “Inflation therefore predicts the existence of an infinity of domains, each with different physics – a ‘multiverse’.”

Inflation decays at different rates in different locations, leading to 'bubbles' in the inflationary vacuum, in other words, creating the high potential for a multiverse

Now the problem  stands within us that our Universe doesn’t have the properties of a typical member of the multiverse. “Our universe is exceedingly dilute in vacuum energy relative to a typical region in the multiverse,” We are therefore forced to explain its special properties, such as dark energy, with the topsy-turvy logic of the ‘anthropic principle’: that we live in the domain we live in because, if we didn’t, the physics would not have given rise to stars and galaxies, and physicists to describe them. “This gives inflation no explanatory power,”  “It’s an infinitely flexible framework capable of fitting any data. To my mind that means it is not science.”

 According to ‘the father of inflation’ Prof Alan Guth of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology: “The comment that inflationary cosmology, as we currently understand it, cannot be evaluated using the scientific method seemed so far removed from reality that 32 leaders in the field of cosmology, including five Nobel Laureates, and I wrote a letter to the editor categorically disagreeing with the statements made by this article about the testability of inflation.”we  think that inflation, like ‘string theory’ (a candidate for a theory of everything) has evolved over a long time in the absence of serious experimental tests of its fundamental ideas. “It has therefore created a culture in which supporters believe the theory need not pass the same stringent tests as other theories to prove its rightness,” .

From Bang to Bounce?

One alternative to us is that the Universe didn’t begin with a burst of vacuum-driven inflation but instead underwent a previous contraction phase. The Big Bang would therefore not have been a Big Bang but rather a Big Bounce. There are a number of possibilities, one of which is the ‘cyclic Universe’  in which the Universe might undergoes repeated bounces, possibly an infinite number of them, and therefore has actually no beginning at all.

Crucially, though, a long pre-Big Bang phase provides plenty of time for properties of the Universe to equalise, just as a long time allows a bath of cold water to come to an even temperature after hot water is added.

Did a tiny star had the power one of the biggest bangs in the Universe is a big question to solve for Big Bounce?

Scientists created strange matter that once filled Universe. The Standard Model of particle physics describes the fundamental ‘fields’ that make up our Universe. An electron is a ripple in the ‘electron field’, a photon a ripple in the ‘electromagnetic field’ and so on. The Standard Model, however, is only an approximation of an as-yet-unknown deeper theory.

 we  authors say  it will contain new fields with new massive subatomic particles. These will oscillate in the early Universe, imprinting a telltale regularity on the temperature variations of the cosmic background radiation. “This ‘periodicity’ is potentially observable,”  “And the crucial thing is that it’s different for a Universe that underwent an inflationary expansion and one that underwent a contraction.”

The largest temperature variations were set in place first in an expanding scenario but lasted in a contracting scenario. And since the size, or amplitude, of the temperature variations grows with time, it is possible to tell which scenario was first.

The new test is not the only possible test of inflation. An experiment at the South Pole called BICEP2 is looking for the imprint on the cosmic background radiation of ripples in space-time (gravitational waves), created in the violent turmoil of the early Universe. “If the imprint is found, it will prove"  Big Bang inflation,” . “But if the imprint is not found, it will be possible to find an inflationary model where the imprint is undetectable. This is what we want to mean about the theory being infinitely flexible and scientifically unfalsifiable.”

We of course do admit that the detailed physics of a cosmic bounce is as unknown as the detailed physics of inflation. But  this is inevitable because of the state of our knowledge of fundamental science. The two towering achievements of 20th-Century physics are quantum theory (which describes the world of the very small) and Einstein’s theory of gravity (which describes the very large domain of the Universe).

In the Big Bang, a very big Universe was very small and therefore it is necessary to unify quantum theory and Einstein’s theory of gravity in order to predict what went on. Such a unification has so far proved elusive. “The stark truth is that, without a quantum theory of gravity, we can never really be sure how our Universe began..

Xxxxx

What others say about Big Bounce theory?

Now the breakthrough may come on origin of universe.  Thanks to both theories. 1) Inflation theory through quantum chromodynamics and scalar field  and 2) Big Bounce.  One was to use the most nascent and still-not-complete theory of quantum( QCD) cosmology—a mash-up between quantum mechanics and general relativity—instead of classical general relativity to describe our observable universe. The second theory was to assume that when the cosmos was very young , matter there behaved like light in that the laws of physics that describe it did not depend on any scale. For example, light acted the same regardless of its wavelength. The physics of matter, on the other hand, usually vary from small to large scales. “We know that in the first 50,000 years the universe was essentially just filled with radiation,. “The normal matter we see now was not really very significant then. I think a scaleless early universe is actually very much suggested by our current measurements.”Under those conditions Turok and Gielen found that the contracting universe would never actually become a singularity—essentially it would rather “tunnel through” the worrisome point by hopping from a state right before it to a state right after it. Although such sidestepping sounds like cheating, it is a proved phenomenon in quantum mechanics. Because particles do not exist in absolute states but rather hazes of probability there is a small but real chance they can “tunnel” through physical barriers to reach locations seemingly off-limits to them—the equivalent, on a microscopic scale, of walking through walls. “The fuzziness in space and time and the matter conspires to make it uncertain where the universe is at a given time,”

Turok explains. “This allows the universe to pass through the singularity.”

Other big bounce proponents say the work is a significant step. “By making those two plausible assumptions, they find a very interesting result, which is that a bounce can occur,” says Princeton physicist Paul Steinhardt, one of the founders of inflation theory who has more recently become one of its sharpest critics of inflation theory of Big Bang. He is in opinion. “It shows that in principle a singularity can be avoided.” Steinhardt and Ijjas have been working on another way to mathematically demonstrate the possibility of a Big bounce, by introducing to the universe a special type of field that causes the contraction to turn into expansion well before space gets small enough to become a singularity. Their solution uses classical general relativity as opposed to quantum cosmology. “It means that classical, nonsingular bounces are also possible,” Steinhardt told . They reported their work in a paper posted June 28,2021 to the preprint server arXiv.org. Both studies are still preliminary. Turok and Gielen were able to calculate the bounce only for the case of an idealized universe that is completely smooth and lacks the small density fluctuations that lead to the formation of stars and galaxies in the real cosmos. “The cases that we can actually solve exactly are very simple universes,” Gielen says. “The question you always have is, ‘Will that still be there if you go to something more complicated?’ That’s what we’re working on at the moment.”the universe bounced once, a natural question is whether it will again. But not all bounce theories suggest we are destined to cycle forever through contractions and expansions—for example, even if our universe bounced before, we have no indication so far that it is heading for another contraction. The dark energy thought to make up the largest chunk of the cosmos’ total mass–energy budget seems to be pulling our universe apart at an ever-accelerating rate. What is truly in store for the future is a very open question—about as open, in fact, as the issue of how it all got started.Many advocates of inflation are highly skeptical of any bounce model, especially because they say proponents had repeatedly claimed in the past to be able to calculate bounces without singularities, only to be disproved. “I’m not happy that they do not admit that all their earlier papers should be disregarded,” says Stanford University physicist Renata Kallosh, who calculated errors in previously proposed bounce models. “They now make a new claim, and this new claim I don’t believe.” Alan Guth, a pioneer of inflation based at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, agrees. “Ihe says. “I would like to wait and see how it develops. If they have succeeded in what they claim they’ve done, I do agree it’s very important—even if it’s not the best model for the history of the universe.”

Some inflation researchers are more forgiving, though. “I think that this is a very intriguing line of research,” says Marc Kamionkowski of Johns Hopkins University. “The bounce scenarios, although not yet developed to the level that inflation has been developed, are promising, and it’s imperative to try to develop them further. This paper provides an interesting mathematical result, in a toy model,” he adds, referring to the idealized universe the researchers worked with.Turok and other critics of inflation have their own problems with the dominant theory. They charge that inflation requires unlikely circumstances to get started (a claim proponents disagree with) and that it does not resolve the specter of a singularity at the moment of the big bang itself. Furthermore, “inflation leads to this nightmare scenario of a multiverse,” Turok says, “which for some strange reason is surprisingly popular.”He suggests that the heated debate in the field and the heavy scrutiny new ideas receive will help scientists ultimately converge on a better theory of our origins. “People hold very strong opinions,” Turok says. “I freely admit I do and I freely admit my opinions aren’t shared by 95 percent of cosmologists. I’m actually critical of all these theories, including the ones I invented. But today we have spectacular observations pointing us at incredible simplicity in the universe. To me that means that all of our existing theories are way too complicated. The observations are pointing at simplicity and it’s our job to come up with a simple theory that will hopefully explain those.”

What every person must know about the string theories to evolve all super clusters, galaxies ,stars, planets , planetesimals in the Universe  

Authors are -: 

Rupak Bhattacharya ,BSc (Calcutta University), MSc (Jadavpur University) ,of residence  7/51 Purbapalli, Post office - Sodepur, District 24 parganas ( North) Kolkata -110, West Bengal, India,

 FreelancerTheoretical physicist 

( He has No institutional affiliation )

** Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD (University of Calcutta) ,FICPath, WBMES (Retired), 

Ex Retired Professor and Head of Pathology from West Bengal Medical Education Services cadre of Department of Health and Family Welfare of  Govt of West Bengal ,India 

( He Has Presently no Institutional affiliation) 

**Upasana Bhattacharya, 

  student of 5th semester B.DES ( Fashion Design course ) , School of Design , UPES University ,Bidhouli , Derhadoon, Uttarakhand, India ,

 ***Ritwik Bhattacharya, B. Com

 ( Calcutta University) 

( He has No institutional affiliation )

****Aiyshi Mukherjee , 

 BSC Biotechnology (honors) 2nd yr student of Kalyani University, West Bengal 

***Rupsha Bhattacharya BA (honors) 2nd yr student of  Journalism & Mass communications of West Bengal State University, Barasat , North 24 Parganas  West Bengal 

****Debasish Mukherjee BSc (Calcutta University) 

(He Has No institutional affiliation )

****Dalia Mukherjee BA honors       (Calcutta university)

 (She Has No institutional affiliation )

 ***Hindol Banerjee BA (honors) West Bengal State University, Barasat ,north 24 parganas, West Bengal, India

*** Of residence 7/51 Purbapalli , Post office --Sodepur, D-: 24 parganas

( north) ,Kolkata -110 ,West Bengal, India

(No institutional affiliation)

**** Of residence Swamiji Nagar, South Habra, District 24 Parganas ( north ),West Bengal ,India

(No institutional affiliation)

Acknowledgement -:

All authors of this article gratefully acknowledge contributions of following persons to bring them up and educate them about the" Origin and fate of this Universe, multi Universe theory,  possibility of Extraterrestrial intelligent civilization, panspermia theory  and exoplanets"  like our parents late Mr. Bholanath Bhattacharya (1926-2009) B.Com ( honors in accountancy;  University of Calcutta) ; FCA ( intermediate );SAS  and late Mrs. Bani  Bhattacharya (1935-2006) of their  residence  at 7/51 Purbapalli, Post Office -: Sodepur, District 24 Parganas (North ) ; Kolkata -110, West Bengal ,India and also to  bellow mentioned uncles and aunts   late Mr. Ajit Kumar Chakraborty, late Mrs Sudharani Chakraborty, late Mr Abani Kumar Chakraborty , late Mrs Rebeka Chakraborty , late Dr Asit  Kumar Chakraborty, Mr. Binay Chakraborty, Mrs Aparna Chakraborty ,Prof .Dr . Monoj Bhattacharya, late Prof. Dr. Krishna Bhattacharya , late Mr. Nakul Chandra Bhattacharya  and specially to Late Mrs Sialabala Chakrabortyn of Mahajati Nagar  Agarpara, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India 

Corresponding author -: Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD ( University of Calcutta ); FICPath;  WBMES (Retired)

Email-:  profpkb@yahoo.co.in 

mobilephone number and what's app -: +91 9231510435

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Abstract-:

The basic things of string theory say that we live in an accelerating and ever expanding universe today. String theory also supports the inflation theory of the Big Bang, where a period of rapid expansion happened in the history of the early Universe. Most of the theories in string theory are focused on understanding a theory of broken Supersymmetry.  In String theory, De -Sitter space can arise only when Supersymmetry is broken. Breaking supersymmetry in string theory required us to come  face to face with problems to maintain stabilisation of the universe. In String theory, vacuum ( voids) was  created along with N≥ 2 supersymmetry; there may be flat universes or modules. The energy as we go along three directions in space time ( as it is in scalar field theory) ,there are rather many flat directions or dimensionsin string theory . In field theory, the space is remaining constant and in fact vanishes immediately. But there are 100 flat directions in compactification in string theory .The flat directions or dimensions  are however very bad in Big Bang standard model cosmology. Flat directions cause however many problems in the standard Big Bang model. 

The big question to us  is that , does String theory allows the De- sitter universe ,- a Universe  with negative cosmological constant to anti De- sitter space and inflation theory of Big Bang? It is known that De -sitter space can only arise if and when Supersymmetry is broken. In string theory N ≥2 Supersymmetry there are many flat directions or dimensions .The energy as we go along then these spaces is a constant and intact vanishes identically and these  directions are bad news from part of cosmology . Cosmologically flat directions also ruin successful prediction of nucleosynthesis later . However a new class of string compactification called "flux compactification" are there. In this compactification besides curling up the extra dimensions as  presumed in string theory , small size fluxes are also turned on along the compactified  directions. The fluxes includes higher form generalization of magnetic flux in electromagnetism turning them on charges, the potential in modules space, so that new minima arise in regions or feild space where the potential can be calculated there with control. The value of  cosmological  constant in this  minima  can be calculated with a positive value given in De- sitter universe. This theory of Rupak Bhattacharya, Ritwick Bhattacharya, Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya etal (here are authors) can allow De- sitter universe and inflation at Big Bang in "M theory" and why then this universe started from a Universe  that went to re collapsed and faced a  Big crunch ie Big Bounce, within a Planck time of Big Bang ( Reference no 1- Rupak Bhattacharya ,Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya upasana Bhattacharya Ritwick Bhattacharya etal "What if the Big Bang was not the beginning point of our observable universe"  Research and Reviews : Journal of Space Science and Technology  of STM journal ;vol 10 ;issue no 3 ; 2021;  page 1-7)

String theory is the theory of everything?Whether string theory can live up to  its claim of being the theory of everything and whether it will ever provide a satisfactory falsifiable prediction, as such remain a debated question beforethese present authors. String theory was first  born in the 1960s. Here  strings interactions demands the fundamental forces of the universe a)  Gravity b) Electromagnetism c) Weak nuclear forces d) Strong nuclear forces as we will discuss in the text of this article, Fundamental particles scattering experiments in high energy particle accelerators like Large Hadron colliders ( LHC) had revealed a stunting proliferation of all resultant fundamental particles. Particles after particles like axions, excitators, spinors, resonance, quarks,neutrinos, W Bosons ,winos , all Fermions, R particles, at particular energies aimnantinig for over growing 200 of particles. But none of these particles including even  the latest one of Nobel laureate Peter Higgs  " Higgs particles"  has yet proved  to have  resting zero mass in Gev/c*2 temperature in Grand Unified Theories ( GUTs) and  thus can not be the most elementary particles in the universe with zero rest mass  . Moreover, an over growing near zero mass of particles in motion at speed of light, can't be all elementary particles and thus a zero resting mass particle will be when discovered only then the mystery of the universe will be solved. We have to search for the resting zero mass  particles in the colliders . According to the authors of this article, string theory had several flaws , most serious that the mathematical consistency of string theory at first told us  that a string must have 26 special dimensions,  rather than when  our human eyes can see only three dimensions ( maximum four dimensions  when space time is considered another dimension or directions). Later a rescue attempt replaced the string  with  new  fermionic particle  variety  with infinitesimal  particle's spins  attached to tubular force that could braught dimensions  from 26 to minimum 10. Thus in the 1970s QCD  theory came.The Quantum field Gauge  theory in QED of strong interaction resulted in a field  blow to understand nuclear physics in terms of Superstring theory , where string interactions became weak at very short distances. But for the string, couplings that occur over large distances know a lattice QCD  because it is successful to explain strings. We authors wonder if the strings theory stands as theory of everything , then despite all our efforts we still cannot explain why there are no free quarks in Nature ? 

Key words 

Cosmic String , Hadrons,quarks, anti quarks,  Big Bang standard Model,  GUT , super heavy strings, Gluons Minkowski space, oscillation of strings, Supersymmetry and  Evolution of galaxies,

Introduction -:

One most important theory about the origin of our observable Universe is the cosmic strings or superheavy strings theory which are predicted to form in the early Universe in Grand Unified Theory ( G.U.Ts),in the standard Big Bang model, where loops of cosmic strings were considered the seeds of all  galaxies of this Universe . Before we authors directly jump into Superheavy string theory,let us first talk a little about elementary particles in Quantum Chromodynamics ( Q.C.D) and in Quantum Electrodynamics (QED).

About elementary Particles

What is hadrons?-:

 Molecules are composed of atoms. Atoms in turns  are composed of electrons and a nucleus. The nucleus in its turn is composed of protons and neutrons and the hosts of very short lived particles with  which they interact , are composed of yet more fundamental particles  called"Quarks". Quarks are not however found in a free state in nature. They are thought to be apparently confined in the interior of the particles they are composed of. It is relatively easy to separate an atom from a molecule, an electron from a nucleus  or a proton from an atom . But it is very difficult to remove a quark from inside a Proton or a Neutron 

Today  the elementary particles are two types 

1. Leptons(ℓ)  -: The Electrons and Neutrinos are the most familiar in this group others are  electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino

2. Photons -: Particles which interact only with one another and with all others . Electric charge of photinos  < 1×10*−35 e color charge 0, spin 1, spin state two +1h,-1h;  it's condensed state mass is huge -: I(J*P C)=0,1*(1−−)

So far these two particles  had shown no internal structure further

Hadrons-:  It is the most complete structure. Hadrons are defined by the fact that they interact with one another strongly. The best example of hadrons  are protons, neutrons, the Mesons, the pi mesons or Pions, the hyperons which do feel strong nuclear forces. In QCD, we believe that hadrons are built of smaller building blocks  like Quarks, bound together by QCD forces gluons or Glue balls .  

There are hundreds of known hadrons which exist widely with diverse properties and are very short lived . The observed  properties spectrum of hadrons are broadly divided in two classes a) Mesons-: which have larger spin (0, 11,2) such as pions(    π) ,kanon( k), and rhO( P)

b) Baryons -: which have half integer spin ( ½, 3/2) such as Proton (P) , Neutron(N) ,Lambda( Λ) ,Omega(Ω). Mesons and Baryons can be subdivided or grouped into multiplets in which the numbers are quite smaller. This classification scheme is called'' Eightfold ways". Merry Gelman

( NL) and Zewang( NL) told that all hadrons could be built-in in bound state of few fundamentals one with spin ½ constituents,  called Quarks ( fermions ) .According to him  mesons are bound state of a quarks (q+) and it's antiparticle (q-) while Baryons are constructed of three quarks and anti Baryons are made of three anti quarks. Thus the antiparticles have the same mass as particles  but exactly has opposite quantum numbers. The Meson and Barton so constructed should have electric charge through their quarks numbers 

Quark flavours-:

Up Quarks  -: symbol (u);Mass ratio (1); in unit of proton charge(+⅔); Baryon(⅓); number of spin(½)

Down Quarks-: symbol (d) ; Mass ratio (2.5,);  in units of proton charge (-⅓)  ; Baryon (⅓) ; number of spin (½)

Strange Quarks-:  symbols (s) ; Mass ratio ( 50);  In units proton charge (-⅓);   Baryon (⅓) ;  number of spin (½)

Charm Quarks -: symbol (  c  ) ; Mass ratio (1673) ;  In ratio of proton charge (+⅔) ; Baryon (⅓) ; number of spin( ½)

Bottom Quarks -: symbol ( b) Mass ratio (1125); In units of proton charge (-13e) ; Baryon (⅓) ; spin(½);  it has color ; yes it decays finally into charm Quarks or into Up quarks 

Top Quarks -:symbol ( t);  Mass ratio (3375 or 173 Gev*2) ; In unit of Proton charge (⅔) ; Baryon (⅓) ; spin (12)

Soit becomes obvious that quarks,  neither anti quarks particles, were  ultimately masslessparticles ( it was however first thought quarks were massless) when they were at rest conditions or in inertia state or in condensation phase , at a point of inflation of the Universe or before the nucleosynthesis started in the universe after Big Bang . They had rather huge mass in Gev temperature and of quarks particles families, top quarks (t) have the highest mass among fermion particles. All quarks do carry functional electrical charges. The d,s,b quarks charge -⅓ in units of Proton charge while c & t quarks have charge +⅔ . Hadron may be thus labelled by their quantum numbers. Hadrons may carry other quantum numbers which was a pain taking discovery. Over the years" baryon numbers", "strangeness" and " charms'' were named of importance. Based on these, hadrons are classified into two broad categories "Baryons" and " Mesons" which are distinguished by their decay products.All hadrons  decay themselves by emitting  leptons (ℓ) photons (γ), or other hadrons,the last of which in turn in the same manner. Baryons always leave a proton among their decay products.Their antiparticles called anti baryons , decay eventually into antiprotons. Mesons either decay entirely into leptons and photons or into baryons and antibaryons pairs. To quantify all these baryons are assigned as baryon numbers and anti baryons are assigned as" B-1" and Mesons are assigned as "B-0". The significance of strangeness (s) and charm(c) is regarded as measurable integer labels carried by hadrons which are labelled in strong interaction but not in weak interaction for beta decay. It is also observed that strange hadrons (s+O) were systematically heavier than non strange hadrons with otherwise identical quantum numbers. When hadrons with charm were discovered it was found still heavier

The Proton and the Neutron have nearly the same mass ( about 938 Mev) and are quite similar in many other aspects. They differ, of course, in their electromagnetic charges. All hadrons follow this pattern. They come in small families or multiplates with  very similar properties but of different charges. Thus there must be a kind of symmetry in the Universe. This symmetry is called " isospin symmetry" described to the types of families and similar properties of members of a family but does not determine in which family they do exist, like proton- neutron form a doublet, π Mesons form a  triplets ( charges -1,0,+1) and″ delta"(∂) hadrons form a quadruplet ( charges (-1,0,+1+2). After the discovery of strange quarks (s) in the 1950s attempts were made to incorporate strangeness into the classification system. This  was because they assigned the hadrons to families with similar properties ( in particular with the spin and parity) but with different charges and strangeness. Strange hadrons weigh somewhat more than non strange siblings, so that strong interactions are not bound to strangeness, but they are near-sighted to allow us to group particles  into families anyway. The concept of or notion of "Quarks " was thus introduced  in 1964 by Marry Gelman ( Refno 2 -: Gelman M , Physics letter  vol8; page2141964) and Zweig ( ref no 3-:  Zewig G - CERN preprint TH 401,page412, 1964)  to explain why Baryons came only in multiplets of 1;8;10 and Mesons in multiplets of 9. They in their articles first proposed the classification to imagine that hadrons are composed of three types of fundamental particles called 'Quarks".They first proposed that Baryons were made of three quarks (Q 3) and Mesons are made of Quarks and antiquarks

A nutshell about Quarks flavours-:

So all  hadrons are definitely composed of small numbers of more fundamental particles called quarks. Experiments with high energy electrons and neutrinos made it possible in effective ways to take the x-ray of proton structure and it revealed that protons do contain objects with exactly the properties ofquarks. The quark possesses an unusual types of charge which in QCD called"color" which operates in the same ways  as the electrical charge. The relativistic quantum field  theory of colour induced force is called quantum chromodynamics (QCD).  By analogy with mathematically similar combinations and two types of flavours of quarks which are labelled as  Up (u) and Down ( d) quarks. The Up(u) and Down (d) quarks are needed to make up both Neutrons and Protons . They move ( spin) inside the hadrons with  an effective mass of about 0.33Gev.To explain the properties of heavier particles further quantum numbers (like  strangeness,charm and beauty particles) must be assigned to Up and Down quarks and their quarks flavours are known as  "S" quarks ,"C"quarks and "B"quarks respectively ."The strange quarks" (S) with mass of 0.5Gev is needed to make up the strange particles which were discovered in cosmic rays in 1940.The "charmed quarks" ( c ) with a mass of 1.5 Gev is needed to make up z/W bosons particles."The bottom  quarks" (b) with a mass of 4.8Gev and was found to make up Gamm(γ) particles. A further flavour of quark (T) or "Top quarks" is predicted to form the symmetry arrangement  and CERN scientists confirmed it in 1997.The evidence for Top quarks came through a dozen or so events contains either W Bosons ( seen via their decays into an electron or muon and a neutrinos) or one such W boson together with three or four sets of hadrons. These are believed to be due to productions of Top quarks antiquarks pairs. The collider detector facility ( CDF)  events have distinctive Top and anti Top quarks features. For example many of them contained  bottom quark or antiquark . The CDF  announced the mass of Top quarks in 171 ±16Gev. At the large electron positron collider ( LEP) the mass of many decay properties of Z bosons had been measured also enabling the mass of Top quarks 171±15Gev . Both the charm quantum numbers and strange numbers are conserved by strong and weak electromagnetic interaction. This means that charmed  or strange particles must undergo a weak decay whose rate is determined by two factors: the  weak interaction coupling constants and density of allowed  final stage i.e. phage -space availability. The characteristic lifetime of strange particles decay are around 10*11 seconds.The charmed particles are much heavier than the strange particles and charmed particles are much heavier than u,d,or s quarks

To explain simultaneously the "Symmetries and charges " of the observed hadrons the quarks are also required to have the electrical charges,which is a fraction of the electron charges "e".Thus an UP (u) and down quarks(d)  have charges+2/3e and -1/3e respectively.  Thus a proton  consist of 2 down ( d) and one up( u) quarks or may be designed as d2,1u

( Ref 3-:  Close E. G " introduction of quarks and protons " at page P3-88; Academic press New York ,1979).  The lambdaparticles (Λ or λ)) consist of one Up quarks,one strange quarks and one down quarks.(u1,s1,d1), similarly Omegaparticles (Ω) consist of 3 strange quarks or may be designed as (s3), Pion(π ) particles  consist of 1 up quarks and 1down anti quarks( 1u,-1d), kaon particles (1u,s1), charmonium (J/psi meson)  can be (1c,-c1),  Bottomonium (n2S+1LJ) particles ( b,-b). Similarly strange hadrons are made of using  s quarks.  The Meson or iP   particles are bound states of charm and anti charm quarks . Although the quark  model was very much  indeed successful in classifying the observed hadrons,in the 1970s, still  it became clear that the simple quark model was inadequate. In addition to quark flavour, quark must carry additional quantum numbers which  are known as " color" and each quark flavour comes in a distinct color,there are as many as color as we thought. There are red, green and blue color . So Up quarks are now denoted as ur,ug,up,ub. They are identical in all respects ( mass, charges, and so on) except in their colors. Similarly colors are present in other quarks like in down quarks ( dr; dg; db) for strange quarks (sr; sg; sb)  for bottom quarks ( br;bg; bb) for Top quarks ( tr;tg:tb) and so on and so on . So color was initially three types in the earliest universe ( even when nucleosynthesis did not start) , and they were Red, Green, Blue.  

The existence of strongly interacting particles with spin ½ is the quarks particles that have half integral spin and as such they ( quarks) are known as Fermions.  But the  basic difference from other Fermions particles from the quarks  is that quarks carry extra quantum numbers " color" which the Fermions do not carry. The quarks as they carry these color and so hadrons are always colourless. 

Quarks are in spin motion 

In the particles and even all the structures found in the universe are in spin motion but who started spinning is the big question: the Higgs fields? -: . 

Particles like electrons, neutrons,  protons, and quarks  are in right handed  or in left handed spin  movement. In QCD,  we believe that hadrons are built up from  smaller building blocks  of quarks bound together by QCD forces. Protons  contain several such quarks  spinning in opposite directions. Spin effects play a very important role in the very early stage of quark structure of hadrons. Actually quark structure model  gave the first satisfactory explanation of magnetic movement of the proton and neutron having their particles made from two kinds of flavours called up and down with electrical charges of +⅔ and-⅓   of the proton charges respectively.The proton is thus made of 2u quarks and 1d quarks and neutron is made of 2d quarks and 1u quarks thus giving  observed charges of+1 and 0. Because all have the spin as proton,the right total  spin for the proton and for the neutron  is obtained by having the u and d quarks in opposite directions giving a total spin which is the difference between u-d quarks spin.

Electric charges spinning 0 in opposite directions have their magnetic movements all pointing in the same direction and added up to a large value. These explain why proton with a positive charge has a magnetic movement  roughly three times the Dirac value and neutron with no charges has magnetic movement corresponding roughly to double the Dirac value for a particle with negative charges

The big question to present authors of this article  is whether further sub &  sub elementary particles in QED  were possible than quark itself?Geonium is a man made atom created in liquid helium temperature in ultra high vacuum from an individual electron in magnetic and electric trapping fields. For this atom the electron gyromagnetic ratio g=20,000,000,000110(60) has been measured in microwave spectroscopy experiments. After substraction  of quantum electrodynamics shifts , The g-gDirac=11x10*-8 excess over the value g Dirac=2 for the theoretical Dirac point electron suggest for the electron of nature a corresponding excess radius Re-R, Dirac over the Dirac radius  R Dirac=0 and so it must be a special structure ( Ref 4-: Bhattacharya Rupak, Bhattacharya Ritwick, Mukherjee Dalia  Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar  "Sub2 quark particle possible in the origin of  mass in early universe " , discussion in Extreme Astronomy.com). A  near Dirac radius Re~-10*-20 centimetres must be present  . In the Big Bang cosmology a near zero rest mass particles are required in singularity point which indicates from nothing state ( zero mass) resulted a spontaneous quantum jump to give finally mass ( Higgs particles are now thought to give mass to a mass less particle in Higgs field  ) in earliest big bang time and these particles  and antiparticles were in ½ spin ( Dirac point particles). So far quarks particles  and it's sub quark energy color and Higgs particles are discovered . In 1974, the Pakistan Physicist late  Prof Abdul Salam ( Nobel laureate in physics) and his associates pictured the electron, a particle on the  level of a quark as composed of three subquarks each 10*10 times heavier than electron in  Gev mass, as like a proton is composed of three spin ½ particles.This is now nomenclatured  as "Salam particles' according to late Prof AbdulSalam (who received Nobel prize in physics as citizens of Pakistan).The big question remain to present authors is it possible to have sub2 quarks particles with zero rest mass in Gev temperature?" . This particle must be sub-sub x  quarks, particles less and less imperfect near Dirac particles held together by new stronger and stronger forces and with almost zero mass in Gev. Probably to the beginning of our universe in planck epoch such a particle existed where Higgs particles fused to give mass in Higgs fields

Forces regulating our universe -: 

Now there are three important forces that regulate our observable four dimensional universe ( space time is when taken as 4th dimension).They are Gravitational forces, Electromagnetic strong forces and electromagnetic weak forces.  The gravitational force is well understood classically since Newton's theory was propagated by Einstein. But even today  there is no satisfactory particle theory for the gravity in particle form except a " Graviton"(G) particle  (mass in Gev 0 < 6×10*−32 eV/c*2) . The effect of gravity is quiet negligible in experimental particle physics and Gravity is very important for large bodies.The electromagnetic force holds atoms together and control the behavior of matter.The strong force is responsible for holding the nucleus together and weak electromagnetic force is responsible for beta decay and other rare process. Now once it was known that hadrons are composed of quarks ,it became possible to construct the theory of strong force.

 It is the force that rather acts between quarks which hold together to form hadrons generating nuclear binding. In QED ,for so long the electromagnetic forces were generated by exchange of photons  between electrically charged particles.  Weak forces were generated  by exchange of new particles H, W,and Z particles. But in QCD , the inter quark force requires another particle called "Gluons'' in gluons fields.Both  the quarks  and Gluons  carry color charge. So Gluon exchange generates Gluon -Gluon  force as well Gluon -quark  or quark-quark forces . What are the Gluon particles in QCD? Are then gloun sub -sub quark particles?.In  certain circumstances quarks radiate energetic particles further,which give rise to characteristic controlled YETS of Gluonparticles. Such YETS were discovered in electron proton colliders called PETRA in Hamburg which revealed the existence of Gluon particles in their Nature. Gluons are theorised really massless particles with spin 1 and negative parity ( charge 0, spin 1, mass in Gev/c*2 is 0 force mediated Strong force) . Gluons are mixtures of two colors, such as red and antigreen, which constitutes their color charge. The evidence of Gloun  is more quantitative and theoretical for evidence for quarks particles.About half of the momentum of the nucleon is  carried by quarks while objects which do not interact either electromagnetically or weakly,must then carry the remaining momentum. It is the Gluon. Gluons can  be  from quarks by strong interacting process. Perhaps most direct evidence for Gluon particles came from observation of jet like structures in high energy annihilation of e+e- experiment. Colliding beams of e+ and e-  particles have been observed to annihilate into hadrons, most of which were found from two YET-like structures in PETRA experiment. The Gluons or Glue balls can be also identified in R ( Rupak particles) particles . Their measurements of the lack of  electromagnetic couplings of R particles led the present authors to hypothesize that R particles (Rupak particles) consist of Gluon bundles. In QED photons transmit the electromagnetic forces . Following the discovery of Psi( An electrically neutral meson having a mass 7,213 times that of the electron and a mean lifetime of approximately 1 X 10*-20 seconds, composed, like the J/psi particle, of a charm-anticharm quark pair particles) , a theory released that  implied  that radiative Beta (β) decay of Psi  particles should be the good sources of Gluon matter( in ordinary matter there should be existence of Glue balls also. ) Matter here is made of gluons as most finest particles, but obviously then matter is not composed of only quarks as finest one. Rather we can say R particles are prima facie candidates for resonating Gluons 

Cosmic Strings 

With this very superficial little background knowledge of particle physics, let us now discuss the Super heavy string theory of galaxies evolution ,The main alternative theory of origin of structures of the universe are cosmic strings or super heavy strings which are predicted to form in the early Universe by Grand Unified Theory ( GUT) in inflationary Big Bang model . Loops of cosmic strings were actually the seeds of galaxies. They were super heavy strings,formed atphase transition or condensation that took place when the universe cooled after GUTS in the very early universe . Kibble ( NL in physics) had suggested that GUTS strings played an important role in the evolution of the universe and the strings provided the inhomogeneity leading  to formation of galaxies. In the very early universe strings were predicted to be formed at symmetry breaking phase transition by those Grand Unified Theories,in which vacuum had the appropriate topology . Cosmic strings are the configuration of the matter fields which owe their topology of the space of degenerate vacuum , produced by the phase transition in the early Universe . Let us ignore the normal structure of the strings and treat them as one dimensional objects with tension. In the resting frame of strings,the mass  per unit length ∞ to tension . The equality of the line of density and the tension caused the typical velocity associated with large vibration on the strings to be close to the speed of light . The strings can not end  but can  either close on themselves or can be extended to infinity (∞). The closed strings formed the string loops. As with any objects  in tension, strings would  also accelerate, so as to try to become straight .Damping  of the strings motion was due to their gravitational interaction with other matters , those become negligible as soon as the strings were formed. Strings that extended outside the horizon of the universe were  conformably stretched by the cosmic  expansion. Thus at a given epoch these strings were straight on their length and scale, but were smaller then the horizon size, but was quite convoluted on a large scale then this. The typical velocity was associated with straightening of a string and was close to speed of  light and the velocity field  of the string  extending outside  the horizon  was relativistic and approximately constant over scale much smaller than a horizon size.Once a loop entered the horizon it no longer expanded but rather  started  to oscillate with a period comparable  to light  travel time across it. The motion was damped  by gravitational radiation causing the size and period of loops  to decrease approximately linearly with time. The  fractional decrease in size , period,and mass of the strings in one oscillation was given by equation Guw where G is Gravitational constant. A string will decrease to zero size in a finite amount of  time losing its energy  by only gravitational radiation.  The distribution of strings in our universe were not quite so often well understood. After the phase transition the strings were formed in a random network of self avoiding curves/ loops.Some of the strings were in closed loops and some were as infinitestrings.Thedistribution of strings so happened that a constant number of loops entered the horizon. If the infinite strings would simply straighten out , then numbers of open strings across the horizon-sized volume would  also increase with passing  time  and strings  would soon come out to dominate the density of the universe . But it didn't happen.  Velenkin ( Ref no 5-:  velenkin A,  Physics Review D23; P852: 1981)  showed that the geometry producedby  the gravitational field near a length of straight string  is that of Minkowski space with three dimensional ( 3D) l wedge taken out of each space, like sliced . The vertex of the wedge lies along the length of the strings and angle subtended by missing wedge lies in the frame of the strings and is equated as ∂πGu. The two exposed faces of the strings thus could be identified. Thus space time remained everywhere except along the strings,where it was highly curved .If Gu<<2,then the stress energy of the strings would produce only small ( lenier) perturbation from the metric of the rest of the universe. Because the matter hadrons in the universe didn't produce significant perturbation from the Minkowski metric space,on scale,less than horizon, the gravitational field at a point ,much closer to a length of a string would be essentially then the same  as gravitational field at similarly located point in Minkowski Space. In the rest frame of the strings ,all elementary fundamental particles were, when passing,the strings deflated by an angle 8πGu withrespect  to all particles passing on the other side of the strings. The magnitude of  discontinuity in temperature across the strings ( while passing of particles) was  ∂T/T=8πGb where G =Gravitational constant ,b=transverse velocity of strings which typically was close to unity. This jump of temperature persisted on angular distance away from the strings, corresponding to the present angular size of the radius of curvature of the strings.The magnitude of temperature jump was then independent of Red shift (Z) at which  light rays reaching to us, passed by the strings. If we calculate the general properties of microwave sky anisotropy in string mode  then let us assume that microwave photons were last scattered at Redshift Z=1s. So in a perfectly homogeneous universe the matter became mostly neutral and optically detectable than at Redshift Z ~1000. However in an universe,with strings, there will be large amplitudes in homogeneity on a small scale and the heat output from objects forming at or before Z/τee may  re-ionize the plasma. If the plasma were fully ionized then Z1s>10 and we have 1000>Z1s>10,the angle subtended by a horizon sized volume space at Z1c is θ1s*-½<<1. One would expect to see  on a round patch of sky of strings per horizon volume at Red shift Z will project one length of string of angular size θ if z<1s. These strings will then oscillate moving relativistically as they were unable to straighten themselves  out of this length scale.In modern Gauge theories of fundamental interaction of vacuum was far from nothing. Rather it is now recognised as a dynamical object that was in a different state. The state of vacuum affected the properties such as  masses and interaction of particles put into it. 

vacuum was created -:

Although the vacuum is thought to be in a ground state,with the lowest state of energy, this state has not always been the same. Thus in early universe when the particles components ( ordinarily matter and radiation) was at  very high temperature,the vacuum adjusted it's state in doing so , modified the properties of particles so as to minimise the free energy of entire system ( vacuum plus particles) i.e the vacuum  went into higher energy state in order to lower the energy of hot plasma by even greater ammount.As the universe cooled to keep the entire system at the lowest possible energy,at a given temperature,the vacuum had to change eventually ,ending up to its present state which is nearby the true or zero temperature vacuum. It was possible in early universe that as the universe expanded, the cooling happened too rapidly for the vacuum to find its true ground state and the vacuum was frozen into ground state with defects.Defects that probably could occur in a three dimensional space could be zero dimensional ( Monopoles),Two dimensional ( domain walls) or one dimensional ( Strings). The strings are so microscopic objects.In most cases  of cosmological interest they have no ends and are either infinitely long or they are in closed loops . AtGUT, the strong,weak and electromagnetic forces behaved as if they had equal strength much as line defects found in crystals.They formed as a network across the space time.The GUTs predict that strings were formed at a temperature of about 19*15 to~ 10*16 Gev, at cosmological time of 10*~35 second. The cosmic strings were formed at the mass scale of GUTs symmetry breaking ( Mx-2x10*15Gev) was typified by mass per  unit length uG/c*2~2x10*6 in …… ( G = Gravitational constant,c= speed of light which is corresponding to u = 

The strings were formed with a mass per unit length of about 10*20 kg*-1. Because of their enormous tension e/G the net work of the strings were formed in phase transition.In this theory  the strings contributed only a small fraction of mass of the universe.The Galaxies were formed by accreacting of ordinary matter around the strings.The strings were attached by subsequent expansion of universe on wave on a  given scale and began to oscillate then .The strings underwent oscillation in which transverse inertia acted as weight and the restoring factors were provided by longitudinal tension of the Strings. The gravitational fields of these string loops caused accretion of matter around them . Brosche PG in  the journal of Astrophysics, stated that angular momentum of  an astronomical object  is proportional directly  to square of mass  and constant of proportionality is comparable to string  theories,which suggests that the universe had evolved through hierarchical breaking of rotating or oscillating strings  and the angular momentum with mass between various classes of different objects ranging from planets to superclusters

 ( Ref no 6 Brosche PZ " j.astrophysics vol 57; P 143; 1963) . For the  past four decades a variety of Grand Unified Theory ( GUTs)  had been developed to unify the strong and  weak  interactions at an energy scale of 10*16Gev .GUTs are gauge invariant point  fields theory of Yang and Mills, the  two Nobel laureates in physics which do not incorporate gravitational forces and henceforth there remains few theoretical constraints on the possible internal symmetry group as per these authors of this article.

Super symmetry? -: 

 The most favourite GUT theories are based on  the special unitary group  Su(5), the special orthogonal Group SO(10) or the exceptional Group E6. In such GUT theories quarks particles and leptons particles make up three of  these families that are unified in one' family. Super symmetries are an important ingredient of GUTs. It is  symmetry that relates to  Fermions and  particles of different spins. But Supper symmetry is not an internal symmetry of the universe, but amounts  to an extension of  space-time in super- space that includes extra spinorial anti-commuting co-ordinates  as well as ordinary  coordinates. Super symmetry requires particles such as s quarks , s leptons, winos,zinos,R particles which have yet to be discovered. Super Gravity theories are point field theories that incorporates local or gauged suppersymmetry and thereby enlarging Einstein theory of relativity. The basic idea of gauge theory is a continuous symmetry or global invariance properties of Lagaragianfield theory that can be made into a local  invariance by  gauge field theory. This means that given a field theory, which proposes symmetry such as U1(1) ,Su(2),Su(3)  or any other U group. The theory can be  extended in a gauge theory which has the symmetry at each part in the space time individually. The new  symmetry is then called Gauge symmetry because it  implies we can choose our  measuring standard  Gauge to differentiate  throughout space time without changing the physics of the theory. The most familiar example  of a Gauge theory is electromagnetism . In QED , the quantum field theory of electromagnetic interaction are charged particles and photon / Boson is the most  successful gauge theory.The behavior of a relativistic string moving in space time differs  significantly from that  of a  point  particle. Unlike a point particle , a classical relativistic string has an  infinite  number of vibrational modes with arbitrarily high frequencies and angular momentum. This means that in quantum theory , a string  has an infinite number of states with masses and spins which increases without limit. 

String theory developed in the 1970s as model of strong interaction physics. A meson has thought of as a string  with a quark  attached to one end  while an antiquark to the other end. The string tension (T)  was supposed to be ~1Gev*2 and the  excited states of the  strings were supposed to be hadrons. The main  theories were " Boson theory" which only  described Bosons  and the spinning theories that incorporated Bosons as well Fermions . These early  string theory had several theoretical  inconsistencies according to  present authors of this article, because the  strings  ground  states always  turned out to be Tachyons  ( Reference no 6-:  Rupak Bhattacharya, Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya, Upasana Bhattacharya, Ritwik Bhattacharya Rupsa Bhattacharya, Dalia Mukherjee etal  'Tachyon faster than light particles exist in our universe or an imaginary mathematical particles " International journals of Astronomy Astrophysics and Space Science vol 2; no 3; June 2015; page 12-29).  Superstring theory that evolved from spinning string theory that incorporated Supersymmetry and had no tachyonic ground state. Superstring theories  hence offered the possibility of constructing a consistent quantum theory that unifies  all interactions including gravity and natural mass scale set by string tension (T)  at Planck's scale  ( T*½=10*9Gev).The  excited states were so massive that they could be taken to be infinitely heavy ( like superclusters of galaxies) and the theory can be approximated by effective point field theory of the mass-less state only. At the energy scale below the  Planck scale, the string looks like a point. One of the constraints in any string theory is that  all string theory contains a massless spin 1 and spin 2 particles which are associated with  Yang and Mills Gauge Boson  and Gravitation. Furthermore the original Bosonic string theory  required 26 space time dimensions  where as  superstrings theory demands only ten (10 )  dimensional space time.We live only in a three (03)  dimensional universe and we can best  imagine four (04)  dimensional space time. Then where  are these extra six (06) dimensions in superstring theory or extra twenty two (22) dimensions in Bosonic string theory? Maybe  these dimensions are curled  up or coiled up and finally became  very small  by compactification in superstring theory or may be hidden in black hole.

Types of superstring theories -: 

There are three types of superstring theories . Type 1 super string theory describes the dynamic of open  strings that have their free end points. The strings here carry quantum numbers in the n dimensional, defining representation  of a classical group G-S0(a) or the simplistic group USP(a) at their endpoints SU(a). This is similar to the way in which quarks quantum numbers were incorporated in the original string picture of Mesons. 

The string is locally invariant under two Super Symmetries n=2 and the free ends boundaries conditions break down this just to one( N=1) supersymmetry. The mass-less open strings state is the usual  state of SuperSymmetry of Yang Mills theory in ten (10) dimensions with Gauge group G . The two open strings can interact when two ends touch  and join  to form one open string or co inversely one string can split  in two. One important thing is that the two end points of a simple string  can join to form  a closed string and  thus massless state of a closed string forms a super Gravity and don't carry yang Mills quantum numbers 

Type II superstring theory only involves the closed strings . This can have  an orientation associated with the fact that waves can run around the strings  in two possible directions. The two orientations allow for two chiral supersymmetries.  So  these theories are  invariant under ten( 10)dimensions. In type II (a ) theory  the two superchargers  have opposite chirality and so the theory has  actually no  chirality and therefore it is not  a very important theory. It is rather a low energy point field theory whose dimensions are  D=10.n=2 non chiral super Gravity. Type II(b) theory  has  super charges of the some  chirality. It is  also low energy  point field  theory, the limit  is the  chiral dimension D=10 n=2 super Gravity. This theory is a remarkable theory  in being Chiral  and yet  not having  any gravitational anomalies and IIa very important thine of any  superstring theory is that it must give rise in observed chirality of our three dimensional world which means it must maintain parity with laws of physics

Type III  super string theory ,also called Heteriotic string theory ór Bosonic string theory .It is also based  on closed strings only, although it carries a Yang Mills  Gauge Group G and has super symmetry n =1. In this theory, instead of Yang Mills charges residue at the ends of  the string  there is  a charge density along the whole string (Ref no 7-:  Gross David , Hurvey  j  Martinec  F, Rohm R et al  Physics Review Letters vol 54; P 502; 1984  David Gross awarded Nobel prize in physics for this published work ) . This type of  superstring by  David Gross et al  based on either E8xE8 of type I superstring theory or S0(32). It has been speculated in this theory, if the Gauge group G is E8xE8 -the E8 symmetry may persist  even in dimensionally reduced theory  and in that case  there will be creation of  two types of matter  whose interaction will be described as E8. One type of matter  will exactly mirror the other i.e. matter and antimatter or shadow matters will be created in this theory . This shadow matter or antimatter  interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter creating huge bursts of energy and radiations .  But the  Heteriotic string theory involves originally twenty six (26)  dimensions with sixteen (16)  dimensions  being maximum tours of one or other of two groups  and thus this theory leaves us últimately  in ten (10)  dimensional space time. 

It was again Kulza  in 1922 and Oscar klem in 1926 who jointly showed that if a person assumed general relativity in  five dimensions, where one dimension was curled up , the resulting theory then would have a four dimensional theory of electromagnetism  and Gravity. Electromagnetism  energy there remains as Gravity in the curled up 5th dimension. Wien  had identified the momentum of particles moving around the 5th dimension as gravitational charge . Bosonic string theory ( type III)  requires 26 space time dimensions when super string  theory contains 10 space time dimensions. So in string theory at least there are six (6) or  seven (7)  extra  dimensional space time remaining.  One can imagine that these  extra dimensions are curled up to form a small manifold  and remarkable such six or seven  dimensions  compactification can produce a world remarkably  like our own World in which the shape of  extra dimensions determine the matter content and forces of nature as seen in four dimensional observers. 

So the strings could occur  as vortex in Gauge theories in anomalies manner in the  formation of  Abrikosov  megantic filaments in super conditions and such a vortex  was formed  in phase transition in the very early universe in the Higgs fields. . The  strings then  broke down or chopped of mesh at speed of 10*8 seconds after the Big Bang.This spontaneous broken  theory with Higgs fields says 1M* 2X/4£

G∫πn*2∫G where π is true vacuum expectations value of Higgs field  and MX Mass of the associated vector boson G=g*2/4π is the Gauge field  coupling  constants ( G is Gravitational fraction for the  Abelian  Higgs Model .If MH=MX where MH is the mass of scalar Higgs particles' then ∫G=1 then electro week with u=19*2and MX=100Gev and the string mass Ucw~-2x10*-5 g cm*1 ~=2x10*-33 c*2/G . For Grand unification strings  alpha G ~10*-2and MX ~10*-15Gev yelding uGv gamma ~2X10*21GCM*-1~=2X10*-7c*2/G where C is Speed of light ( Ref no 8 Velkin A Physics Review Letter Vol 46; Page 1169; 1981) which shows that value of u for astronomical strings much closer to GUTs strings.

Evolution of Galaxies stars planets from cosmic strings -: 

 So Brosche and Tassie (reference no 9 LT Tassie Nature vol 323 P 40 1986) theory suggested a very different evolution of the universe and Galaxies.  According to them ,  some times in the early past of the universe, strings constituted all or nearly all of mass of Universe and that astronomical objects we today see originally formed from the strings in such a way  that a large piece of string which eventually corresponded to Superclusters galaxies ( it contains some millions of galaxies ) broke into smaller pieces of strings corresponding to clusters of galaxies . These pieces of strings in turn further broke into further smaller pieces of strings  corresponding to galaxies . They even broke into further smaller pieces of strings to stars and so on and so on. At each stage of hierarchy breaking of strings the new pieces might have some vibrational energy and the vibrational energy was large compared with mass to come on. Eventually the pieces of strings transformed either by phase transition or some form of rapid breaking into ordinary matter and thus became planet satellites, asteroids etc that we see now . But many other theory say that seeding of galactic matter and radiation densities, the universe passed the state of equal matter and antimatter  and radiationdensities some about 10*11seconds (30000 years) later than galactic string loops chopped off mashes after 10*8 seconds after the initial Big Bang .

So the idea that super heavy strings were formed at phase transition in the very early universe provides an explanation of the origin of galaxies. GUTs  formed strings at symmetry breaking phase transitions in the early Universe in which vacuum ( voids) was appropriate topology. They have well known analogues in condensed  matter physics. Much as the line defects the strings formed a network across the whole space . In some theories strings were formed after a period ofinflation. They were then stretched by subsequent expansion of the universe and waves on a given scale began to oscillate as the  scale entered the particle's horizon. Wherever the strings crossed itself,an exchange of partners occurred and produced crossed  oscillating loops  of strings with long life times. The gravitational force of these loops  caused matter to accrue  around strings.Thus the strings could be  the primordial density fluctuation needed in the early Universe to explain eventual formation of galaxies. Now the question stands how such strings would produce density fluctuation on a broad range  of scale which was responsible for formation of galaxies? Galaxy formation from the dark matter was an extremely active area of study. From the Big Bang nucleosynthesis ,it was known that  Baryons accounted for less than 15% of  critical cosmological density. Observation of the dynamics of galaxies suggests that matter clustered with galaxies is 60% of the critical density ( K) and the lower end of observed range is consistent with the Baryon limit. Thus the dynamical Dark Matter could be Baryon?There are however two arguments which drive us to look for other candidates.The first is inflation and the second is anisotropy of 3K microwave background.

Inflation was the only way of explaining several otherwise extraordinary initial conditions of the universe.But for fine tuning of inflation required a critical density of the universe . Thus at least 85% of the universe (15% were Baryon) could notbe the Baryons matter and more than 60% of the matter of this universe so didn't cluster into galaxies.The density of the matter on the universe must be  greater than baryonic upper limit . To make things a little more difficult,it is said that " the special correlation  functions of  rich clusters of galaxies had revealed strong clustering of very large scale up to 150 MPC" .This correlation functions of clustering of galaxies was 18 times stronger than the special correlation functions of galaxies. It was also found that the largest scale of the universe seems to look filamentous ( strings are here turned filaments ) with large vacuum ( voids) and large clumps .With the GUTs an excellent way appeared to produce the distribution of size of universe. In normal generation and application of GUTs ( a fluctuational spectrum with equal powering all scales formed naturally) it was assumed that there was no special correlation between large scale and small clumps.They each had random probability of occurring  anywhere in the universe. On the other hand it means that strings are still produced in some spectrum,somewhere  and in some size. Different proposals so had been put to solve the problem but no models could solve it  as long as it was assumed that primordial fluctuation had random phases. For example a model based on  Neutrinos produced  both critical density and large scale structures  like filaments voids clusters correlation functions but didn't account for early formation of galaxies ( Ref no 10 Bachcall N j astrophysics vol270; P20;1983).Models evoking heavy or slow moving particles[ like Gev mass photinos, gravitons, axions, planetary mass black holes] however fits  the small scale structure galaxy correlation functions, formation of time  and so forth as well as building hierarchical to yield  clusters , but it do not allow critical density of the universe to be reached. Even the hybrid model with low mass and huge mass ions also runs into problems, because low mass particles smear out of the small structure of the universe.A more natural solution of the problem might be non random phases of the string model. JE Peebles Nobel laureate in physics ( Ref no 11  JE Peebles Nature vol 311.P517;1984) noted that non random phases of string model of the universe yields large scale filaments and voids as superheavy strings attract galaxies and clusters and give string- clusters -strings correlation.Work by JE Peebles showed that a model based on clustering of galaxies about filaments ( here strings) fit higher 3and 4 points correlation functions for galaxies as well as hierarchical clustering. This model also enables density growth in some areas without producing a large universal background anisotropy and so could enable Baryons to be Dark Matter on galaxy and cluster state with non baryonic stuff being a critical density background. The degree of Random to non random phases in such a model depends upon the density of strings in the space . In the limit of space being completely filled with strings the string picture also give random phases. Even if string densities are large enough to randomised phases their mere existence would still alter galaxy in formation  , calculation, because it were the strings rather than matter that would carry the fluctuations.

The universe's  rhymes ( References 12) —

The appearance of all similar structures in different areas of physics—underlie the ways  theory can potentially unifies gravity with the other forces of nature and thus can eliminate the ultraviolet divergences that plague quantum gravity. String theory has, even among theoretical physicists, the reputation of being mathematically intimidating. But many of its essential elements can actually be described simply. Our this article aims to answer a few basic questions about the string theory and evolution of our most distant galaxies in the earliest time of the observable universe. 1) How does string theory generalize standard quantum field theory?  2) Why is string theory forcing us  to unify general relativity with the other forces of the universe, while standard quantum field theory makes it so difficult to incorporate general relativity? 3) Why are there no ultraviolet divergences in string theory? 4)  What happens then to  Einstein’s conception ofspacetime in string theory?

Any physicist who studied at a very high level of physics  is aware that although physics—does not precisely repeat itself, it does rhyme, with similar structures appearing in different areas. We can say that Einstein's  gravitational waves are therefore analogous to electromagnetic waves or to the water waves at the surface of a pond when a stone is thrown in water . We authors here will begin with one of the universe's rhymes: an analogy between quantum gravity and the theory of a single particle. Even though we do not actually understand it well, quantum gravity is supposed to be some kind of theory in which, from a macroscopic point of view, we average, in a quantum mechanical sense, over all possible spacetime geometries. (We do not really know to what extent that description is valid microscopically in string theory.). SoGravity plays a more important role always in macroscopic objects rather than it plays on  microscopic or in a single particle.  The averaging if performed, in the simplest case, with a weight factor  exp (iI/ℏ), where I is the Einstein–Hilbert action:

I=1/16πG  ∫d*4x√g (R−2Λ).(*= As super script  ie to the power of )...... (equation no1) where G is Newton’s constant, g is determinant of the metric tensor, R is curvature scalar, Λ is a cosmological constant, and d*4x is the spacetime volume element.

Let us try now to make such a theory with one spacetime dimension instead of classical four space time dimensions. The choices for a one-manifold are quite limited:

Picture (1)

Moreover, the curvature of the scalar field is then identically zero in one dimension, and all that’s left of the Einstein–Hilbert action is the cosmological constant. However, Einstein’s fundamental insights were not tied to the specific Einstein–Hilbert action.Rather, they were in the broader sense that spacetime can varydynamically and that the laws of the universe are generally covariant, or invariant under arbitrary diffeomorphisms (coordinate transformations) of spacetime. 

 By applying those insights, we can make a nontrivial quantum gravity theory in one dimension provided we include matter fields.

Adding matter in scalar field -: 

The simplest of matter fields are scalar fields X**I, where I = 1, … , D. (** Is underscript )

The standard general relativistic action for scalar fields then  is

I=∫dt√g [1/2D∑I=1 g*tt (dX**l/dt)*2*−1/2m*2],......(equation no 2)

where g**tt is a 1 × 1 metric tensor, and the Λ term has been replaced now with m*2/2.

Let us now introduce the canonical momentum P**I = dX**I/dt. The Einstein field equation—which is the equation of motion obtained by varying the action I with respect to g— is just g*tt D∑I=1P2/I+m* 2=0. ……(equation no 3)

We if pick the gauge g*tt = 1, so the equation is P*2 + m*2 = 0,(equation no 4) with P*2 = ∑IP I*2. Quantum mechanically (in units with h= 1), PI = −i∂/∂**XI, and the meaning of the equation P*2 + m*2 = 0 is that the wave function Ψ(X), where X is the set of all X**I, must be annihilated by the differential operator that corresponds to P*2 + m*2. Then

(− D∑I=1 ∂*2/∂X*2** I

+m*2)Ψ(X)=0.  ….(.equation no5)

This is an equation—the relativistic Klein–Gordon equation in D dimensions—but in Euclidean signature, in which time and space are on equal footing. To get a sensible physical interpretation, we should now try to reverse the kinetic energy of one of the scalar fields XI so that the action becomes

I=∫dt√g{½g*tt [−(dX0/dt)*2+D−1∑i=1(dXi/dt)*2]−1/2m*2}....(.equation no 6)

Now we know that the wave function obeys a Klein–Gordon equation in Lorentz signature:and thus

(∂*2/∂X*2 0−D−1∑i=1∂*2/∂X*2i+m*2)Ψ(X)=0……(equation no 7)

So we have found an exactly soluble theory of quantum gravity in one dimension space time that describes a spin-0 particle of zero (0 ) rest mass m propagating in D-dimensional Minkowski spacetime. Actually, we can replace Minkowski spacetime by any D-dimensional spacetime M with a Lorentz (or Euclidean) signature metric GIJ, the action being then

I=∫dt√g(1/2gttGIJ dX*I/dt dXl/dt−1/2 m*2).......(equation no 8)

Figure 1a

Figure 1a caption 

.[ A graph with trivalent vertices. 

The natural path integral to consider is one in which the positions x1, … , x4 of the four external particles are fixed, and the integration is over everything else. A convenient first step is to evaluate an integral in which the positions y1, … , y4 of the vertices are also fixed. This Feynman diagram can generate an ultraviolet divergence in the limit that the proper-time parameters τ1, … , τ4 in the loop all vanish.]

From here on, summation over repeated indices is implied. The equation obeyed by the wave function is now the massive Klein–Gordon equation in any curved spacetime M:(−G*IJ D/DX*I D/DX*J+m*2)Ψ(X)=0,...( equation no 9)

where D represents covariant differentiation. 

Just to make things more familiar, let us authors  further go back to the case of flat spacetime .  Let we calculate the probability amplitude for a particle to start at one point x in spacetime and end at another point y.We can do it so by evaluating a Feynman pathintegral in our quantum gravity model. The path integral can be done over all metrics g(t) and scalar fields XI(t) on the one-manifold with the condition that X(t) is equal to x at one end and to y at the other.

 The process of evaluating the path integral in our quantum gravity model is to integrate over the metric on the one-manifold, modulo diffeomorphisms. But up to diffeomorphism, the one-manifold has only one invariant, its total length τ, which we will interpret as the elapsed proper time. In our gauge g*tt = 1, a one-manifold of length τ is described by a parameter t that covers the range 0 ≤ t ≤ τ. Now on the one-manifold, we have to integrate over all paths X(t) that start at x at t = 0 and end at y at t = τ. That is the basic Feynman integral of quantum mechanics with the Hamiltonian being H = ½(P*2 + m*2).According to Feynman, the result is the matrix element of exp(−τH) is

G(x,y;τ)=∫d*Dp/(2π)*D exp [ip⋅(y−x)]exp[−τ/2 (p*2+m*2)]..... equation no( 10)

 But we have to also  remember to do the gravitational part of the path integral, which in the present context means to integrate over τ.The integral over τ gives our final answer:

G(x,y)=∫*∞0dτ(G(x,y;τ)=∫d*Dp/(2π)*D exp[ip⋅(y -x)]2/p*2+m*2…(.equation no

 11)  This formula is the output of the complete path integral—an integral over metrics g(t) and paths X(t) with the given endpoints, modulo diffeomorphisms —in our quantum gravity model. The function G(x, y) is the standard Feynman propagator in Euclidean signature, apart from a  convention-dependent normalization factor. Moreover, an analogous derivation in Lorentz signature (for both the spacetime M and the particle world line) gives the correct Lorentz-signature  Feynman propagator.

So we have now already interpreted a free particle in D-dimensional spacetime in terms of 1D quantum gravity. can we include interactions? There is actually a perfectly natural way. There are not a lot of smooth one-manifolds, but there is a large supply of singular one-manifolds in the form of graphs, such as the one in figure 1. Our quantum-gravity action makes sense on such a graph. We simply take the same action that we used before, summed over all the line segments that make up the graph.

Now to do the quantum-gravity path integral, we have to integrate over all metrics on the graph, up to diffeomorphism. The only invariants are the total lengths or proper times of each of the segments. Some of the lines in figure 1 have been labeled by length or proper-time variables τi.

The natural amplitude to compute is one in which we hold fixed the positions x1, … , x4 of the graph’s four external particles and integrate over all the τi and over the paths the particles follow on the line segments. To evaluate such an integral, it is convenient to first perform a computation in which we hold fixed the positions y1, … , y4 of the vertices in the graph. That means all endpoints of all segments are labeled. The computation that we have to perform on each segment is the same as before and gives the Feynman propagator. The final integration over y1, … , y4 imposes momentum conservation at each vertex. Thus we arrive at Feynman’s recipe for computing the amplitude associated with a Feynman graph—a Feynman propagator for each line and an integration over all momenta subject to momentum conservation.

Amore perfect rhyme-:

We have arrived at one of nature’s rhymes. If we imitate in one dimension what we can expect it to do in four dimensions to describe quantum gravity, we shall end up with something that is  ordinary quantum field theory in a possibly curved spacetime. In our example in figure 1, the ordinary quantum field theory is scalar ϕ3 theory because of the particular matter system we started with and because our graph had cubic vertices. Quartic vertices,  will give ϕ4 theory, and a different matter system will  give fields of different spins. Many or maybe all quantum field theories in D dimensions can be derived in that sense from quantum gravity in one dimension.

There is actually a much more perfect rhyme if we repeat the procedure in two dimensions—that is, for a string instead of a particle. We immediately run into the fact that a two-manifold Σ can be curved: 

Figure 

On a related note, 2D metrics are not all locally equivalent under diffeomorphisms. A 2D metric in general is a 2 × 2 symmetric matrix constructed from three functions: 

g**ab=( g11/g21 g12/g22),g**21=g**12…

..equation no( 12)

 A transformation of the 2D coordinates σ, generated by σ*a→σ*a+h(σ),a=1,2……(equation no 13) ,can remove only two functions, leaving the curvature scalar as an invariant. All those suggest that the integral over 2D metrics will not resemble what we found in the 1D case. But now we notice the following. The natural analog of the action that we used in one dimension is the general relativistic action for scalar fields in two dimensions, namely

I=∫d*2σ√gg*abG**IJ∂X*I/∂σ**a/∂X"J/ ∂σ**b.

…..(equation no 14) . But this is conformally invariant, that is, it is invariant under a Weyl transformation of the metric gab → eϕgab for any real function ϕ on Σ. This is true only in two dimensions (and only if there is no cosmological constant, so we now omit that term in going to two dimensions). Requiring Weyl invariance as well as diffeomorphism invariance is enough to make any metric gab on Σ locally trivial (locally equivalent to δab), similar to what we said for one-manifolds.

Figure 

Some very pretty 19th-century mathematics now comesinto play. A two-manifold whose metric is given up to a Weyl transformation is called a Riemann surface.As in the 1D case, a Riemann surface can be characterized up to diffeomorphism by finitely many parameters. There are two big differences: The parameters are now complex rather than real, and their range is restricted in a way that leaves no room for an ultraviolet divergence. We will return to that last point later.

But first, let us take a look at the relation between the 1D parameters and the 2D ones. A metric on the Feynman graph in figure 2a depends, up to diffeomorphism, on three real lengths or proper-time parameters τ1, τ2, and τ3. If the graph is “thickened” into a two-manifold, as suggested by the figure, then a metric on that two-manifold depends, up to diffeomorphism and Weyl transformation, on three complex parameters τ̂1, τ̂2, and τ̂3.

 Figure 2b gives another illustration of the relation between a Feynman graph and a corresponding Riemann surface.

Figure 2. Caption 

[From lines to tubes. (a) A Feynman diagram with proper-time parameters τ1, τ2, and τ3 (top) can be turned into a corresponding Riemann surface (bottom) by slightly thickening all the lines in the diagram into tubes that join together smoothly. The Riemann surface is parameterized, up to coordinate and Weyl transformation, by complex variables τ̂1, τ̂2, and τ̂3. (b) The same procedure can turn the one-loop Feynman diagram (top) into its string theoryanalog .]

We used here 1D quantum gravity to describe quantum field theory in a possibly curved spacetime but not to describe quantum gravity in spacetime. The reason that we did not get quantum gravity in spacetime is that there is no correspondence between operators and states in quantum mechanics. We considered the 1D quantum mechanics with action

I=∫dt√g(1/2g*ttG**IJ dX*I/dt dX*J/dt−1/2m*2).....(equation no 15)

What turned out to be the external states in a Feynman diagram were just the states in that quantum mechanics. But a deformation of the spacetime metric is represented not by a state but by an operator. When we make a change δG**IJ in the spacetime metric G**IJ, the action changes by I→I+∫dt√g𝒪, …..( equation no 16)    where 𝒪 = ½g*ttδG**IJ ∂tX*I∂**tX*J   ……(equation no 17) is the operator that encodes a change in the spacetime metric. Technically, to compute the effect of the perturbation, we include in the path integral a factor δI=∫dt√g𝒪, integrating over the position at which the operator 𝒪 is inserted.

A state would appear at the end of an external line in the Feynman graph. But an operator 𝒪 such as the one describing a perturbation in the spacetime metric appears at an interior point in the graph, as shown in figure 3a. Since states enter at ends of external lines and operators are inserted at internal points, there is in general no simple relation between operators and states.

figure 3

[Figure 3. States and operators. (a) A deformation of the spacetime metric corresponds to an operator 𝒪 that can be inserted at some internal point p on a Feynman graph. By contrast, a state in the quantum mechanics would be attached to the end of one of the outgoing lines of the graph. (b) A Riemann surface can also have an operator insertion. (c) If the marked point in panel b is deleted, the Riemann surface is conformally equivalent to one with an outgoing tube that is analogous to an external line of a Feynman graph. The operator 𝒪 that was inserted at p is converted to a quantum state of the string that propagates on the tube.]

But in conformal field theory, there is a correspondence between states and operators. The operator 𝒪 = ½g*abδG**IJ∂**aX*I∂**bX**J  ..…..(equation no 18 )that represents a fluctuation in the spacetime metric automatically represents a state in the quantum mechanics.That is why the theory describes quantum gravity in spacetime.

The operator–state correspondence arises from a 19th-century relation between two pictures that are conformally equivalent. Figure 3b shows a two-manifold Σ with a marked point p at which an operator 𝒪 is inserted. In figure 3c, the point p has been removed from Σ, and a Weyl transformation of the metric of Σ has converted what used to be a small neighborhood of the point p to a semi-infinite tube. The tube is analogous to an external line of a Feynman graph, and what would be inserted at the end of it is a quantum string state. The relation between the two pictures is the correspondence between operators and states.

To understand the Weyl transformation between the two pictures, consider the metric of the plane (figure 4) in polar coordinates:

ds*2=dr*2+r*2dθ*2.( equation no 19)

We think of inserting an operator at the point r = 0.

figure

[Figure 4. A plane ℝ2, when a labeled point p is omitted, is equivalent via a Weyl transformation to a cylinder with a flat metric. Vertical position on the cylinder is given by w and the point p is mapped to the bottom end of the cylinder at w = −∞.]

 Now remove the point and make a Weyl transformation by multiplying ds2 with 1/r2 to get a new metric

(ds′)*2=1/r*2 dr*2+dϕ*2…….equation no 20)

In terms of w = log r, −∞ < w < ∞, the new metric is (ds′)*2=dw*2+dϕ*2,...(equation no 21) which describes a cylinder. The point r = 0 in one description corresponds in the other description to the w → −∞ end of the cylinder. What is interpreted in one description as an operator inserted at r = 0 is interpreted in the other description as a quantum state flowing in from w = −∞.

Thus to us , string theory can describe  quantum gravity in spacetime. But it does not describe quantum gravity only.It describes quantum gravity unified with various particles and all forces in spacetime. The other particles and forces correspond to other operators in the conformal field theory of the string—apart from the operator 𝒪 that is related to a fluctuation in the spacetime geometry—or equivalently to other quantum states of the string.

The operator–state correspondence that leads to string theory describing quantum gravity in spacetime is also important in some areas of statistical mechanics and condensed-matter physics. That is indeed another one of nature’s rhymes.

No ultraviolet divergences

The next step for us is to explain why this type of theory does not have ultraviolet divergences?, in sharp contrast to what happens if we simply apply textbook recipes of quantization to the Einstein–Hilbert action for gravity. When we use those recipes, we encounter intractable ultraviolet divergences that were first found in the 1930s. Back then it was not entirely clear that the problem is special to gravity, because there were also troublesome ultraviolet divergences when other particle forces were studied in the framework of relativistic quantum theory. However, as ultraviolet divergences were overcome for the other forces—most completely with the emergence of the standard model of particle physics in the 1970s—it became clear that the problems for gravity are serious.

To understand why there are no ultraviolet divergences in string theory, we should begin by asking how ultraviolet divergences arise in ordinary quantum field theory.They arise when all the proper-time variables in a loop go simultaneously to zero. So in the example of figure 1, there can be an ultraviolet divergence when τ1, τ2, τ3, and τ4 simultaneously vanish.

It is true that a Riemann surface can be characterized by complex parameters that roughly parallel the proper-time parameters of a Feynman graph (figure 2). But one important difference prevents ultraviolet divergences in string theory. The proper-time variables τi of a Feynman graph cover the whole range 0 ≤ τi ≤ ∞. By contrast, the corresponding Riemann surface parameters τ̂i are bounded away from zero. Given a Feynman diagram, one can make a corresponding Riemann surface, but only if the magnitudes of the proper-time variables τ̂i are not too small. The region of the parameter space where ultraviolet divergences occur in field theory simply has no counterpart in string theory.

Instead of giving a general explanation, we will show how it works in the case of the one-loop cosmological constant. The Feynman diagram is a simple circle (figure 5a), with a single proper-time parameter τ. The resulting expression for the one-loop cosmological constant is

figure

[Figure 5. One-loop cosmological constant. (a) In quantum field theory, this Feynman diagram with a single proper-time parameter τ, underlies the one-loop cosmological constant. (b) The string theory counterpart is a torus characterized by a parameter u (the imaginary part of the complex parameter τ̂ from figure 2a) that, crucially, is bounded away from zero.]

Λ1=1\2∫*∞**0 dτ/τ Tr exp(−τH),(equation no 22) where H is the particle Hamiltonian ½(P*2 + m*2). The integral diverges at τ = 0, and the divergence is actually more severe than it looks because of the momentum integration that is part of the trace.

Going to string theory means replacing the classical one-loop diagram with its stringy counterpart, which is a torus (figure 5b). Nineteenth-century mathematicians showed that every torus is conformally equivalent to a parallelogram in the plane with opposite sides identified:

Figure

But to explain the idea without any extraneous technicalities, we will consider, instead of parallelograms, only rectangles:

Figure

We label the height and base of the rectangle as s and s′, respectively.

Only the ratio u = s’/s is conformally invariant. Also, since what we call the “height” as opposed to the “base” of a rectangle is arbitrary, we are free to exchange s and s′, which corresponds to u ↔ 1/u. So we can restrict ourselves to s′ ≥ s, and thus the range of u is 1 ≤ u < ∞.

The proper-time parameter τ of the particle corresponds to u in string theory, with the key difference being that for the particle, 0 ≤ τ < ∞, but for the string, 1 ≤ u < ∞. So in the approximation of considering only rectangles and not parallelograms, the one-loop cosmological constant in stringtheory is

Λ1=1/2∫*∞**1t d**u/u0Trexp(−uH)....(equation no 23)

There is no ultraviolet divergence, because the lower limit on the integral is 1 instead of 0. A more complete analysis with parallelograms shifts the lower bound on u from 1 to √3/2.

We have described a special case, but the conclusion is general. The stringy formulas generalize the field theory formulas, but without the region that can give ultraviolet divergences in field theory. The infrared region (τ → ∞ or u → ∞) lines up properly between field theory and string theory, and that is why a string theory can imitate field theory in its predictions for behavior at low energies or long times and distances.

Emergent spacetime

Our next attempt here will be to explain, in what sense spacetime emerges from something deeper if string theory is correct. Let us focus on the following fact. The spacetime M with its metric tensor GIJ(X) was encoded as the data that enabled us to define one particular 2D conformal field theory.That is the only way that spacetime entered the story.

In our equations, we could have used a different 2D conformal field theory. Now if GIJ(X) is slowly varying (the radius of curvature is everywhere large), the Lagrangian by which we described the 2D conformal field theory is weakly coupled and useful. In that case, string theory matches the ordinary physics that we are familiar with. In this situation, we can say that the theory has a semiclassical interpretation in terms of strings in spacetime—and it will reduce at low energies to an interpretation in terms of particles and fields in spacetime.

When we get away from a semiclassical, weak-coupling limit, the Lagrangian is not so useful and the theory does not have any particular interpretation in terms of strings in spacetime. The  breakdown of a simple spacetime interpretation has many nonclassical consequences, such as the ability to make continuous transitions from one spacetime  to another, or the fact that certain types of singularities (but not black hole singularities) inclassical general relativity turn out to represent perfectly smooth and harmless situations in string theory. An example of the nonclassical behavior of string theory is sketched in figure 6.

figure

[Figure 6. Schematic representation of a family of two-dimensional conformal field theories (the gray region bounded by black lines) that depend on two parameters. For some values of the parameters, the theories have semiclassical interpretations in terms of strings propagating in a spacetime M1, M2, or M3. Generically there is no such interpretation yet present in string theory. However, one can make a continuous transition from one possible classical spacetime to another, as indicated by the colored lines.]

In general, string theory comes with no particular spacetime interpretation, but such an interpretation can emerge in a suitable limit, somewhat as classical mechanics sometimes arises as a limit of quantum mechanics. From this point of view, spacetime emerges from a seemingly more fundamental concept of 2D conformal field theory.

Wechave not given a complete explanation of the sense in which, in the context of string theory,  how spacetime emerges from something deeper. A completely different side of the story, beyond the scope of the present article, involves quantum mechanics and the duality between gauge theory and gravity. (See the article by Igor Klebanov and Juan Maldacena, Physics Today, January 2009, page 28.) However, what we have described in this article is certainly one important and relatively well-understood piece of the puzzle. It is at least a partial insight about how spacetime as conceived by Einstein can emerge from something deeper, and thus hopefully is of interest in the present centennial year of general relativity.

figure

References 

13.    B. Zwiebach, A First Course in String Theory, 2nd ed., Cambridge U. Press (2009). 

14.    J. Polchinski, String Theory, Volume 1: An Introduction to the Bosonic String, Cambridge U. Press (2005). 

15    M. B. Green, J. S. Schwarz, E. Witten, Superstring Theory, Volume 1: Introduction, Cambridge U. Press (1987).

16=Highlighting the usefulness of string theory

17 String Theory and M-Theory: A Modern Introduction

18 String Theory and Particle Physics: An Introduction to String Phenomenology

Is string theory phenomenologically viable?

 Title -: The first generation of stars formation at Redshift Z=0 and when did they lit up the dark matter? 

Authors 

Rupak Bhattacharya 1 ,Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya 2, Upasana Bhattacharya 3, Ritwik Bhattacharya 4, Aiyshi Mukherjee 5, Rupsha Bhattacharya 6, Debasish Mukherjee 7 , Dalia Mukherjee  8, Hindol Banerjee 9 

Corresponding author

Prof Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya 

E-mail: profpkb@yahoo.co.in

Mobile no and whatsapp no 9231510435

1 Theoretical Physicist, Department of Physics, Jadavpur University, 24 Parganas, North Kolkata -110, West Bengal, India

2 Former Professor & Head of Pathology in  West Bengal Medical Education Services, Govt of West Bengal, India & ex Principal of a Medical College under PPP Model at Chakdaha, District -Nadia, West Bengal 

3 Student, school of Design, Department of Fashion Design, UPES University,  Dehradun, Uttrakhand, India

4 Graduated from, Department of Commerce, Calcutta University, 

Kolkata, West Bengal, India

5 Student, Department of Biotechnology, Kalyani University, West Bengal, India

6 Student, Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, West Bengal State University, Barasat, West Bengal, India

7 Graduated, from Department of Science , Calcutta University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

8 School Teacher, Department of Arts, Calcutta University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

9 Service Man, West Bengal State University, Barasat, North 

24 Parganas West Bengal, India

Acknowledgement -:

All authors of this article gratefully acknowledges contributions of following persons to bring them up  and educating them about the" Origin and fate of this Universe, Multi Universe theory,  Possibility of Extraterrestrial Intelligent civilization, Panspermia theory  and about exoplanets"  like our late parents, late Mr. Bholanath Bhattacharya (1926-2009) B.Com ( honours in accountancy;  University of Calcutta) ; FCA ( intermediate );SAS  and late Mrs. Bani  Bhattacharya (1935-2006) of their  residence  at 7/51 Purbapalli, Post Office -: Sodepur, District 24 Parganas (North ) ; Kolkata -110, West Bengal ,India and also to  below mentioned uncles and aunts   late Mr. Ajit Kumar Chakraborty, late Mrs Sudharani Chakraborty, late Mr Abani Kumar Chakraborty , late Mrs Rebeka Chakraborty , late Dr Asit  Kumar Chakraborty, Mr. Binay Chakraborty, Mrs Aparna Chakraborty ,Prof .Dr . Monoj Bhattacharya, late Prof. Dr. Krishna Bhattacharya , late Mr. Nakul Chandra Bhattacharya  and specially to Late Mrs Sialabala Chakrabortyn of Mahajati Nagar  Agarpara, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India 

Corresponding author -: Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya MD ( University of Calcutta ); FICPath;  WBMES (Retired)

Email-:  profpkb@yahoo.co.in 

 mobile phone number and whatsapp -: +91 9231510435

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Abstracts

Our home is our own  life igalaxy, the "Milky 

Way " which consists of trillions and trillions numbers of stars . One of the middle aged, yellow stars is our sun . 400 billions of stars moving with a very complex and orderly grace in our spiral galaxy the Milky Way. In all galaxies there are perhaps as many as many planets as stars i.e 10 11  x 1011 =1022 ,10 billion trillions planets .Some stars are solitary ( though in a binary star formation system) like our sun and most of the stars have their own companions. Systems of stars  are commonly seen double, i.e  two stars are orbiting one another. Some stars are so close that they touch each other and star staff flow  beneath them .Most stars are however separated from one another by vast spacetime. Stars are born and they die too.   Some stars went into novas and or in supernovas and are as bright as the entire galaxy that contains them. Some stars end them  in blackholes and are invisible even from a few  hundred kilometres away . Some stars  are in triple star systems, some are in binary star systems. Some stars are blue hot and very young. Some stars are  yellow stars. Yellow stars are conventionally middle aged, while red ( red giants ) stars are elderly or dyeing stars. Some stars are in white dwarfs and they are in the final stage of death. Our '' sun " is a second generation star of a binary star formation process, produced by collapse of gases, Interstellar clouds within the  framework of spiral pattern, a gaseous cloud which contains material required for nuclear furnaces,appearing inside the star. Stars are formed of giant interstellar mass, molecular clouds, containing trillions and trillions tons of gaseous hydrogen and deuterium ions as they collapse under gravity. Now in the dense clouds containing perhaps ten thousands millions (1010) atoms per cubic centimetre- that represent a much more dense collection of material , rather than gaseous material in stars , how are they converted into bright stars?  How the stars were formed in the nebula or in  galaxies of the universe?  Stars formation is an astronomical puzzle that involves pure  poor understanding of how interstellar giant molecular clouds( CDM+HDM) turned into the stars ! stars are formed from protostellar condensation in the star forming regions like Nebulas.

Key words 

Age of the universe, Red shift, Hubble constant , cepheids, super cooled stage of universe, voids , COBE,

The age of the universe and Hubble constant -: The universe started at 20 x 1010  (that is 20,000,00 million years) ago but there is still uncertainty about the age of the universe according to the present authors. Determination of hydrogen molecules suggest that H~50km/s~1 MPC OH-2 =20M102 years universe , while age of old galactic clusters NGC is 10M x 102  

 years and the age of elements obtained  from the active isotopes were more than ~10M x102 years . The Friedmann and the Le-Maitre models of the universe tell us that the universe however has a finite age and it must be either expanding or contracting or simulteniously  in both expansion and contraction i.e in the Big Bounce( Ref 1)  . This observation that the galaxies are in redshift having special features of shifted to red wavelength in an apparent Doppler recession strongly supports the expanding universe model now.  Confidence in the Friedmann Le -Maitre model was strengthening further when Edwin Hubble discovered the near relation between redshift and distances in galaxies in 1929.  Hubble discovered a cosmological constant and this constant H(0) is popularly is known as Hubble constant, which is usually expressed in terms of kilometres per second per mega per second I.e 50 km/ S/MPC.The Hubble parameter  is defined as H(t) =1/R (t) xdR (t)/dt , whereR(t)  is the scale factor of the universe.  Hubble constant in the current value of that  parameter and is defined as H(0)= H(Now ) = velocity/ distance and is estimated by measuring the velocity and distance of extragalactic objects. Hubble is perhaps the most important parameter in cosmology because it not only provides us the physical scale of the universe which affects the observed absolute wise, dynamical mass and luminosity of extragalactic objects but it also provides us with an approximate estimated age of the universe.The Hubble  constant has the unit of inverse time. An estimate of the age of the universe, is the hubble time 1/ H0 . This is the  approximate age at a nearly empty Universe one, where expansion had not significantly been solved by its mass energy content. A new model of the universe  called the Ω=1 model, where Ω is the ratio of the universe's mass energy density to the critical value required for binding. In the Friedmann model, the expansion rate of the universe approach is zero,  as time approaches to infinity and the current age of the universe is then  (2/3 ) H0-1 then age=1/H0[1-2q0)+1-q0(1-2q0)-3/2σσ=h-1(1/q0-1) where the deceleration parameter q0 is (½) Ω the ratio if you of universe mean mass density to the closer density  ( referenceBhattacharya Rupak and Bhattacharya Pranab Kumar unpublished ). The age of the universe when M0 is of 50kmxS-1MPC-2 gives the age of  the universe near 20 billion years while an H0 of 10035km S-1MPC-1  in an empty  universe  corresponds to an age of 13.8 billion years. 

Virgo Cepheids -:

But the cepheid variables are the bright stars whose brightness varies  periodically  on a time scale between one and hundreds days . The period of cepheid is very tightly correlated with its brightness. So they are excellent indicators of the distance of the expanding universe and also the age of the universe and are figured  permanently in the extragalactic distance scale. Cepheid first gave us the idea of  other galaxies  lying outside our Milky Way.  Virgo cepheid or Virgo galaxy clusters are so far away , as far as the most  distant previously measured cepheids. They are now measured by the Hubble space telescope. New example of Virgo cepheids H0=87+-7kms-1 MPC-1 ..The galaxy there NGC4571 is in the core of Virgo clusters Galaxy. Again H0~=87+-7kms-1MPC as short value and  long value H0= 50 kmxS-1MPC-1 will after the age of the universe for 20 billions years to 11.2+-0.9 billions years and 7.3+- billion years for Ω=0 model and  Ω=1 model respectively. The absence of accelerating force for the age of the universe is less than 1/H0 and in  standard Big Bang model as 2/3x1/H0 or 7x109 years. In contrast some stars are thought to be 8x109 years old. So here starts the crisis regarding the age of the universe. In the Friedmann  universe model  Freidmann et al calculated H0~=80 +-17kms-1MPC-1 implying that the age of the universe is 9X109 years. In that case,  identifying 20 cepheid variables in M100 is a beautiful spiral galaxy in Virgo. However if we are ready to accept the theory that the age of the universe is estimated from the cosmological model based on the Hubble constant  as per this model, the age of the universe will be then  13.7+-2GYR I.e 13.8 billions years . 

Big Bang ,Supercooled stage, GUT, Vacuum, cold and hot Dark Matter-: 

Though  a Big Bang like event happened in the early universe ,the universe  spent  a period of time in the early phase (1S planck's time)  in a super cooled stage (about 400,000  years after the Big Bang ,that the cosmos had cooled sufficiently for protons and electrons to recombine into atoms ). In the super cooled stage  its density (3K) was then dominated  by large positive constant  vacuum energy and false vacuum.The supercooled stage was then followed by the appearance of multiple bubbles inflation. The temperature variations occured  in 3K cosmological background imprinted some 10-35 second pre inflationary  stage and Grand Unified Theory ( GUT) happened there with generation of trillions and trillions degree of temperature.  As per old inflationary theory of the Big Bang, there appeared multiple bubbles of true vacuum and inflation blew  up a small causally connected region of the universe that was something much like the observable universe of today. This actually preceded large scale cosmological homogeneity and were reduced to an exponentially small number the present density of any magnetic monopoles, that according to many particle physicists GUTs would have been produced in the pre inflationary phase. In the old inflationary theory the universe must be homogeneous in all its directions and was isotropic. In old inflation theory  the super cooled stage was married by the appearance bubbles of the true vacuum, the broken symmetry of ground state . The model of old inflation theory however was later on abundant, because the exponential expansion of any supercooled state always prevented the bubbles from marching and complicated the phase transition. Moreover In true sense, the universe is not totally  homogeneous but on a small scale non homogeneous too. It is very much a well known fact  that the universe contains a critical density of matter (3K)  and infinite space time. The matter was  mostly  baryonic and Mixed Dark Matter ( MDM) . Through COBE  satellite studies  we know  that the early universe was a mixture of Cold Dark Matter and Hot Dark Matter, which is known all together as Mixed Dark Matter (MDM). Most Redshift  surveys had been either shallow ( Z =< 0.03 ), and three dimensional surveys of a few thousands of  galaxies covering a large angle or somewhat deeper (Z > 0.05).

How first generation galaxy and  stars formed at redshift zero-:

 So arguments still persist about the mechanism by which first galaxies and first  generation stars were formed in the early universe. The essence of the problem is that while galaxies were on average, were uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the universe as it should be in the inflationary "Big Bang model "  the observed distribution of both optically visible and radio galaxies on the sky were not  at all uniform. But they were very patchy . Does this clumsiness represent  that distribution of matter at some primaeval  stage in the evolution of the universe or there has been some time of gravitational process? . Jerhimia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie  (Ref no 2 ) had  suggested that the present distribution of galaxies is in the relic  of a dynamic process, in which  outward propagating shock waves created an earlier generation of galaxies. Created galaxies at some place were of high density on the shock front. But the problem of their theory to present authors are  that the empirical rule which says the  chance finding of a second galaxy within same value unit at a distance of "S" is proportional to an inverse power of "S" which simply means that there is a greater chance that galaxies will be close together than it is far apart. Secondly the distribution of galaxies in the universe may have a fractional three – dimensional structures. The most spectacular of large voids  in three dimensions of galaxies is BOTES VOID - a region  at least 50 MPS in diameter that contains no luminous galaxies. A survey  of large scale galaxy distributions reveals that the" Large voids were not the exceptions, but the rules. The survey was the systematic collection of red shifts  of all galaxies of apparent magnitude brightness than 15.5 in a region measuring 6 degrees by 12 degrees in the sky. The Red shifts via the'' Hubble laws `` provide us a three dimensional map of galaxy distributions in a limited volume of the universe. Inspection of the map of the galaxy revealed  a striking results -  large apparently empty ,quase spherical voids  dominated  space time and galaxies are crammed into  the thin sheet and ridges in between hole ( ref no 3 Joseph Sick ) and Joseph Sick discussed in his article, that galaxies  were distributed in a thin slice of universe to 150 MPC. The redshift measurement of galaxies  however revealed  a foamy and clustered distribution of galaxies in the early universe. Most of them were lying on a sheet , surrounding large almost empty holes up to 50 MPC. According to Ostriker and Cowie, an explosion initiated by many supernovas in a newly formed galaxy drove a blast wave, which propagated outward shock waves and swept away a spherical shell of ambient gas . A hole was thus evacuated and an unstable compressed shell fragmented to form many more galaxies. These in turn  developed blast waves and a series of bubbles developed that filled most of the spaces with galaxies ( reference no 4 Jehemia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie ) and published independently by Satron Takeuchi  ( reference no5 ). 

But problems  of this hypothesis to present authors are *1) possibility of the mechanism itself-: supernovas  exploded and cleared out holes that are tens or in rare cases hundreds of processors?  and **2)  Did this phenomenon really work out on the scale of MPC?*** 3) Billions of supernovas were presumed  to be exploded coherently  over the crossing time of galaxy of about 109 years to yield a vast explosions**** 4  ) Next is the missing  ingredient which is gravity. Density fluctuations were present at the beginning of the time in the earliest instant of the "Big Bang gospel " and gravity amplified  the fluctuations into a large-scale structure of the universe. Most cosmologists believe today that galaxies originated in this manner ,rather than explosive amplification of primordial seeds which themselves must be attributed into initial conditions.

 A "giant hole" in the universe had been discovered by astronomers from Minnesota in 2009 January. Investigating an area of the sky known as the WMAF cold spot,  Lawrence Rudnick  and his colleagues found a void empty of stars  gas and even dark matter. As AF's  widely circulated report notes, the hole is big : an" expense of nearly 6 billions trillions miles of emptiness "astronomers  have long known that there are big voids in the universe,and think they can explain them with their theories as to how large structures first formed ( reference no 6 Daniel Cressey) .

Galactic Disks of spiral galaxies consist of Dark matter, COBE study 

 Our galaxy ,the Milky Way, also contains disks of "Dark matter".Dark matter is always invisible but its presence can be inferred through its gravitational influence on its surroundings. Dark matter particles are neutral, it does not couple directly to the electromagnetic field and hence annihilation straight into two monochromatic photons ( or a Photon and a Z boson) are  typically strongly suppressed, (y)Gamma rays can be a significant by product of Dark matter annihilation )  since they can rises either from the decay of neutral pions produced in the hydronization of the annihilation products or through Internal bremsstrahlung associated into charged particles,with annihilation into charged particles, interactions of energetic leptons. In  the Massimiliano   Lattazi  and Joseph  Silk model of 2009 ( Ref no 7) the annihilation results in two neutral Z Bosons or a pair of W+ and W- Bosons, and the dominant source of y ( Gamma) rays is pion decay . From =~4.5TeV, every annihilation results in 26 photons with energy between 200 and 300 Gev. Physicists today believe that dark matter makes 22% of the mass of the universe ( compared with 4%of normal matter and 74% comprising the supermassive ,"Dark energy" ) . But, despite its pervasive influences,  even today no one is sure of what  the dark matter consists of. It was thought that matter forms in roughly spherical lumps called halols, one of which envelopes the MilkyWay  and other spiral galaxies. Stars and gas are thought to have settled into disks very early on, in the life of the universe and this affected how smaller dark matter halos formed. Such a theory suggests that most lumps of dark matter in our locality actually merged to form a halo around the Milky way. But the largest lumps were preferentially dragged towards the galaxy's disk and were then torn apart,  creating a dicks of matter within the galaxy. The presence of unseen haloes of dark matter had long been inferred from the high  rotation speed of gas and stars in the outer part of spiral galaxies. The volume of density of these dark matter decreases less quickly from the galaxy centre than does heat luminous mass such as that in stars meaning that that matter dominates the mass from the centre of galaxies .A spiral galaxy is composed of thin disk of  young stars called population T stars whose local surface brightness falls below exponentially with cylindrical distances from galactic centres and with height above galactic plane. 

Biassing hypothesis , Density fluctuations, COBE-:

The concept of biassing the formation of large scale structure of universe was first introduced by Nick Kesar in journal of astrophysics ( Reference no 8 Peacock JA , Heavens AF Monday And Reference no  9  Barden J Bond jr, kaiser Nick Essalay ). Galaxies were presumed  only to form in the rare peaks of initial Gaussian distribution of density fluctuations. The average Density of  the universe is roughly 10-31gcm-3 which  is less than the critical density (K) of the present universe 9×10-27 kg m-3. ( The matter  of which  universe is made of 42.3% is CDM matter and 73% is Dark energy). Density fluctuations peaks that  occurred in potential large scale structure acquired with a slight boost that enabled galaxies to form. The biassing hypothesis enhanced the large scale structure that developed as gravitational forces amplified the initial fluctuations. Biasing  hypothesis enabled stimulation of a universe containing" Cold  Dark Matter '' at the critical density, with observational determination of density perturbation of the universe. Density fluctuation was present at the beginning of time, in the earliest instances of the Big Bang  and gravity amplified the fluctuations into the large scale structure of the universe. The voids were not really voids  but contained matter that had somehow failed to become luminous. Dark matter was more uniformly distributed than luminous matter and does not respond to most astronomical tests. The universe is now populated with a non luminous component of matter ( Dark matter ) made of weakly interacting massive particles which cluster in galactic scale and are designated ….. The Dark matter  was weakly interacting  and was  clustered in all scales( and hence labelled as cold ). It selectively  formed galaxies at an early epoch  in the rare density peaks. The cosmic background explorer study announced on 18th November 1990 that COBE had used  its helium  cooled detectors to make stunningly accurate measurements of the Big Bang afterglow. The COBE study was based on microwave background radiation that bathed every object of the universe with a cool wash of photon 2.7K .COBE  study conferred that the Big Bang was a remarkably smooth and homogeneous event. The COBE study consistently pegged its temperature at about 2.7 K what  was predicted by the standard model which holds that radiation was emitted  by cosmic fireball just a few hundred after the big bang moment  itself  and cooling  of ever since then. George Smoot ( 2006 Nobel laureate in physics) and his colleagues of Barkley University used differential microwaves radiometer to look for anisotropic variations in the brightness of radiation from point to point in the sky

 They presumably correspond to the density variation  in the cosmic plasma shortly after the big bang and these variations  are in turn presumably the clumps of matter that contracted by gravity to form the galaxies . The problem was that anisotropic if they existed at all,were so weak that it was hard to see now  that how they had contracted into much of galaxies  Any clump that was going to form a galaxy needs to be heavy enough to fight the cosmic expansion which tends to pull the material apart almost as fast as gravity can pull it together. COBE showed no anisotropy at all to an accuracy  of one part in 104 to 105 and it was dark matter. The dark matter consisted of some kind of massive but weakly interacting elementary particles produced in the Big Bang. The cosmic background explorer satellite study was undertaken by the leadership of George Smoot and he considered the Big Bang seriously. Microwave background study also provided that Big Bang COBE study had spotted millionth of a degree variations in the temperature of microwave left over from Big Bang traces of the early universe . Images of Big Bang,provide the earliest snapshots of the cosmos from when it was only about 4000,0000 years old only. The model of MDM  of the universe is consistent with homogeneous inflation theory  and large scale density fluctuations and galaxy distribution that happened in the early universe. It was Merry Gelman who first described the nature of the earliest particles in the universe.  According to him it was quarks particles in Quantum theory. Actually speaking, the quest  for the early universe had provided the particle physicists  with development of an unrivalled accelerator of high energy particles in the Geneva LHC. The Grand unified theory ( GUT) based on gauge  symmetry says that protons (the nucleon) should decay with half life of at most 1031 years. But while isolating the rarest events due to spontaneous decaying of protons ,extensive shielding from atmospheric muons  produced by cosmic rays showers were also regarded and primary results once were supported at Geneva, Switzerland , at LHC . This experiment was carried out   provided in the deep underground Kolar Goldfield,kamoka. This experiment provided us with the most sensitive limit so far that the half life of protons is 1.5x1032 years. This half life of protons is close to the age of the elements obtained from radioactive isotopes ~10x1032 years. This experiments had great  implications to astrophysicists  in that 1) possible explanation of ratio of proton to photon in the Universe.Since the photons now seen in 3K background radiation, are the remnants of equal numbers of particles and antiparticles created during thermal equilibrium of first instances of the universe. These particles were Merry Gelman's  quark particles and its anti-particles were anti quarks . Today's observed protons ( matter) represent  an excess of matter after antimatter . This is the asymmetry in the universe. This asymmetry probably had arisen naturally after 10-35 second of initial Big Bang.However Madsen and Mark Tailor gave the concept of another particle in the primordial  universe (Reference no 10=Gerard Jungmank) .The name of their particles  is neutrinos.There are broadly three types of species of neutrinos 1) Electron neutrinos 2) Muon neutrinos 3) tat neutrinos ,when professor Peter Higgs( Nobel laureate in physics)  gave concept of another near zero mass ( but not exactly zero mass particle ) in primordial universe the particles named after him "The Higgs particles '' which is concluded and recognized particles that gave mass to all particles in the universe and Higgs particles are many but not a single particle . To start the universe  ie before the nucleosynthesis there must be some particles with zero rest mass , which may be either neutrinos or may be one of  Higgs particles or some others particles (not yet discovered in accelerator ) like Rupak particles ( r particles)  or spinors or gravitons that gave dark energy which constitute 73% of the mass of universe. According to Maiden and Tailor the dark matter of which the universe consisted of were the  neutrinos and not the quarks .Neutrinos are constantly born during the process of nuclear fusions  within every star in the galaxy  like it is produced in every second in  our sun. In fusion, protons (the nucleus from the simplest element, hydrogen) fuse together to form a heavier element, helium. This fusion process releases neutrinos and energy that will eventually reach our Earth as light and heat. The sun is the source of most of the neutrinos that are passing through any body though any things through any planets  at any moment. About 100 billion solar neutrinos pass through your thumbnail in every second .All of the neutrinos produced in the sun are electron neutrinos. An interesting thing happened when scientists started looking for those electron neutrinos in the 1960s.  They started an experiment led by Ray Davis Jr. His  experiment used 100,000 gallons of dry perchloroethylene to search for neutrinos. It was housed a mile underground in the caverns of the Homestake Gold Mine in South Dakota, which was then an active mine and is now used for science experiments, including further neutrino research in the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment. Davis’s scientific partner, John Bahcall, had predicted how many neutrinos should arrive from the sun and transform one of the chlorine atoms in the detector into an argon atom. But only one third of the neutrinos seemed to arrive. Researchers weren’t sure if the problem was in Davis’s experiment, Bahcall’s calculations and the current model of the sun, or their picture of neutrinos. Some scientists, including Bruno Pontecorvo, proposed that the neutrino experiment model itself  was the error, but many were sceptical. In 1989, the Kamiokande experiment in Japan added to the confusion. The pure water detector found more neutrinos than Davis’s experiment, about half of the predicted number. But there was still the question of all those missing neutrinos. The GALLEX experiment in Italy and SAGE experiment in Russia also found that expected low-energy neutrinos were missing. As measurements of the sun improved and the solar model was validated, researchers looked more and more to new physics beyond the Standard Model to explain the neutrino deficit. The breakthrough came with data from two newer experiments. Super-Kamiokande, an improved version of the Kamiokande experiment, began observations in 1996, and the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada joined in 1999. Leaders of these two projects would go on to receive the 2015 Nobel Prize in physics for discovering the solution to the solar neutrino problem: neutrino oscillations. Roughly two-thirds of the electron neutrinos coming from the sun were changing their flavour as they travelled, arriving as muon or tau neutrinos.Evidence that neutrinos changed type also proved that they have mass, a shocking discovery.  Only about one third to one half of the predicted number of neutrinos actually showed up in detectors. This became known as the solar neutrino problem, and it took nearly four decades to solve it.

How did the cosmic Dark age end and when did the first star light up in a few hundred millions years ,after the BigBang?

 According to the standard model of the Big Bang, stars formation in the early universe was very different from the present now.  Stars today form in the giant  clouds of  molecular gas and dust embedded in the disks of large galaxies  like our Milky Way or in the dust of nebulas . In the Milky Ways some of  these regions are corona Australis clouds, Taras molecular clouds, Orion nebula , Vela ,molecular ridge, Cygnus x, NGC 6334 and 6357, Eagle Nebula, carina nebula,W40, Rcw 36, w43,W49, M17 molecular clouds and extragalactic 30 Doradus regions .

Whereas the first star evolved inside the Mini Hole that aggregated of primordial gas and dark matter with a total mass of millions of  our suns.  The very first stars might have appeared when the Universe was only 100 million years old, or less than 1 percent of its current age . All the stars in the universe, we can observe now, can be classified as either Population I or Population II, stars depending on their age and composition in it . Population I stars are younger stars and they contain more heavy elements, while Population II stars are older stars with fewer heavy elements. All of the very first stars that appeared first in the universe to light up the universe from darkness are described as Population III stars and these stars  are older still, their existence coinciding with cosmic distances that put them well out of sight of even with help of  our best technologies so far. For them  now, we can only theorise what they might have looked like.  Theoretical physicists think those most  earliest stars were super hot, brightest, and massive, may be hundreds of times the mass of our Sun, that we told .Without any clue or  history of powerful cosmic in the beginning events of formation of first stars  to generate elements heavier than lithium, Population III stars would consist entirely of the simplest of gases. Back then, the only materials available in the Universe were hydrogen, helium, and a little lithium, found in primordial gas left over from the Big Bang. Only once the first stars themselves collapsed in heated violence ,could heavier elements emerge?.Those first stars likely concluded their lives with pair-instability supernovae, -a theoretical type of super-supernova only possible in such massive stars. Unlike other supernovae, this would leave behind no stellar remnants, like a neutron star or a black hole, instead blasting everything outward in an ever-expanding cloud. That blast might have seeded ancient interstellar space with the heavy elements needed for the formation of rocky worlds like our own planet — thus enabling life as we know it — so the net effect is positive . For astronomers on the earth now hoping to learn about Population III stars, however, the light from those ancient mega-explosions has faded into the distance, leaving little more than a diffuse cloud containing a complex mixture of elements. Given time, that mixture of material could itself collapse into something new  star . Using near-infrared spectrography data from one of the most distant-known quasars — a type of active galactic nucleus, or the extremely luminous centre of a young galaxy.This quasar's light had been travelling through space for 13.1 billion years before it reaches the Earth, the researchers noted, which means we're seeing the quasar as it looked when the Universe was only 700 million years old. A spectrograph is an instrument that captures and splits incoming light, in this case from a celestial object, into its component wavelengths. This can reveal which elements are present in a far away object, although gleaning that information isn't always easy.The brightness of lines in astronomical spectra can hinge on factors other than the abundance of an element, which may complicate one's efforts to identify specific elements.Analysing  the composition of clouds around most distant quasars  revealed a strangely low ratio of magnesium to iron in the clouds, which had 10 times more iron than magnesium compared with our Sun. That was a clue, the researchers say, suggesting this was material from the cataclysmic explosion of a first-generation star.It was obvious to us authors then  that the supernova candidate for this would be a pair-instability supernova of a Population III star, in which the entire star explodes without leaving any remnant behind,So the first stars that lit up the universe were in most distant quasars

These first stars are quasars, a populationIII stars.  Since then, the rapid expansion of space has stretched their light into oblivion, leaving us to seek clues about their existence in cosmic sources closer to home . Another difference arises for the initial absence of  elements of lithium in enough quantity, other than hydrogen and helium that were synthesised in the Big Bang. Gas clouds  today are efficiently via radiation emitted by atoms , molecules,or dust grains that contain heavy elements. Because the primordial gas lacked those contain it remained comparatively hot. For gravity to overcome the higher thermal pressure, the mass of all first stars must have been larger as well . The emergence of the first stars in  quasars fundamentallychanged the early universe at the end of the cosmic dark age.  Owing to high masses these stars were copious. They also produced many ultraviolet photons that were energetic enough to ionise hydrogen, the most abundant elements in the universe. Thus began  the extension process re- re-ionisation  which transformed the universe from the completely cooled and dark material state into fully ionised medium. Observation  of CMB  due to scattering of CMB photons  of free electrons, phase constraints,  in the onset of  re ionisation . How the first stars  were formed and how they affected the evolution of the cosmos assumes that  dark matter is made of  WIMP - yet undetected because they interact with normal matter only via gravity with weak nuclear interactions (Unlike normal matter, dark matter does not interact with the electromagnetic force. This means it does not absorb, reflect or emit light, making it extremely hard to spot. In fact, researchers have been able to infer the existence of dark matter only from the gravitational effect it seems to have on visible matter. Dark matter seems to outweigh visible matter roughly six to one, making up about 27% of the universe..) 

A possible  may be non baryonic dark matter  is a  WIMP candidate is the neutrinos particles,the lightest superpartner in mass supersymmetry theory but not the zero rest mass particles. Super symmetry postulated that for every known particle there must be a super partner thus effectively doubling the mass of the elementary particles .Most of the super particles that were produced after the Big Bang ( including  sub quark 2 Rupak Particles ) were unstable and decayed . The neutrinos are expected to be rather massive having roughly the mass of hundreds of protons so they are a part of the cosmos.

There are three prominent hypotheses on non baryonic dark matter, called Hot Dark Matter (HDM), Warm Dark Matter (WDM), and Cold Dark Matter (CDM) and Mixed Dark matter ( MDM) ; some combination of these is also possible in MDM . The most widely discussed models for non baryonic dark matter are based on the Cold Dark Matter hypothesis, and the corresponding particle is most commonly assumed to be a neutralino. Hot dark matter might consist of (massive) neutrinos. Cold dark matter leads to a "bottom-up" formation of structure in the universe while hot dark matter results in a "top-down" formation scenario.

Most of the matter in the universe did not interact then with light except gravitationally .These dark matters assumed to be very intensively cold ,that is its velocity dispersion was sufficiently small for density perturbation imprinted in the early universe to persist in a very small scale. Dark matter  has yet to be detected in the human laboratories.However there might exist some variable dark matter  candidates from particle physics that were not cold and they may be termed as Warm Dark matter ( WDM) as per these authors.  Warm dark matter particles had intensive thermal velocities and there motion quenched the growth of structure bellow a "Free streaming scale"(The distances over which a typical WDM particles travel),which depends on the nature of the particle, because  small and dark haloes do not form better than free streaming scale. The dark matter haloes that formed the first quasars  in a WDM model had far less substructures and we're less concentrated as compared to the cold dark matter( CDM) counterparts। 

The first generation stars in the universe formed when the primordial gas compressed  by falling into these small Dark matter potential walls. Large scale partners in the spectrum of density perturbation  causes progenitors of present  day clusters of galaxies to be among the first objects to condense out of initially almost smooth  mass distribution

Liang Gao and  Tom Theuns [ Reference no 11  Liang Gao]  did studied the early star formation  in the redshift z=0 and they concluded that pristine gas heated and falls into dark matter potential well (halos)cooled radiatively because of formation of molecular hydrogen and became self gravitating . They told another important particles  called  Gravitinos a popular WDM  candidate with mass M 0<6×10−32 eV/c2 and spin 2 a  free streaming particle of fewv+- EVs of kelopersec  and first star at Redshift z~200 and the growth structure re stimulation in the led to a pattern of  filaments  and sheets  which is familiar from the local large scale distribution of galaxies. The assumed  Gaussian spectrum of  density perturbation appropriate for an inflationary model led to collapse along one( sheet ) and two ( filaments) direction before formation  of haloes. Altogether the large scale filamentary  pattern is very similar in CDM  and WDM. These structures of filaments themselves were very different. The CDM  filaments fragmented later into numerous nearly spherical  high density regions ( haloes) and WDM filaments  fragmented at redshift z=23.34, when universe  was 140 millions years old .Gas and dark matter accredited perpendicular to filament axis. Dark matter particles falling into filaments performed damped oscillation as the potential well deepened. Baryons did not undergo orbit but gas compressed  to a temperature T~70000k  at ty 20PC. Rapid build up of HE induced cooling and gas started to dominate the density in population III stars. 

Conclusion 

Sothe first stars in the universe were formed in quasars , when primordial  chemically pristine gas heated up in the form of WDM  as it fell into dark-matter potential wells, cooled  radiatively because of the formation of molecular hydrogen, and became self-gravitating. Using supercomputer simulations, it was found by us that the first stars' properties also depended critically on the currently unknown nature of the dark matter. If the dark-matter particles have intrinsic velocities that wipe out small-scale structure, then the first stars formed  in filaments with lengths on the order of the free-streaming scale, which can be ∼1020 metres (∼3 kiloparsecs, corresponding to a baryonic mass of ∼107 solar masses) for realistic “warm dark matter” candidates. Fragmentation of the filaments forms stars with a range of masses, which may explain the observed peculiar element abundance pattern of extremely metal-poor stars, whereas coalescence of fragments and stars during the filament's ultimate collapsed may seed the supermassive black holes that lurk in the centres of most massive galaxies.

References

1)

Rupak Bhattacharya, Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya, Upasana Bhattacharya, Ritwik Bhattacharya, Aiyshi Mukherjee, Rupsha Bhattacharya, Debasish Mukherjee, Dalia Mukherjee, Hindol Banerjee "What if the "Big Bang" was not the Beginning Point of our Observable Universe?"Research & Reviews: Journal of Space Science & Technology (RRJoSST) vol 10; no 3; page 1-7  ; 2021 

https://sciencejournals.stmjournals.in/index.php/RRJoSST/article/view/3335

2)

Jerhimia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie in the journal Astrophysics  volume 243 page 127 ,1981

3)

Joseph Sick Nature vol 320 page 12, 1986

4)

Jehemia Ostriker and Lennox Cowie Astrophysics journal letter vol 243,p127,1981

5) Satron Takeuchi, Astronomical society of Japan vol 33 P 211,1981

6) Daniel Cressey " plenty of nothing August 24,2007 The Great Beyond Nature.com  http:/blogs.nature.com/cgi-bin/mt-tb.cgi/3329 

7)  Massimillano   Lattazi  and Joseph  Silk "Can the WIMP annihilation boost factor be boosted by the Sommerfeld enhancement"  arXiv:0812.0360 (astro-ph))

8) Peacock JA and Heavens AF Monday Nottingham Royal Astronomical society Vol 217 P 505 1965 

9 )  Barden J Bond jr, kaiser Nick Essalay journal of astrophysics

10)Gerard Jungman at "Neutrinos From Particle Decay in the Sun and Earth" Phys.Rev.D51:328-340,1995

11) Liang Gao , Tom thens Lighting the Universe with Filaments SCIENCE 14 Sep 2007 Vol 317, Issue 5844 pp. 1527-1530DOI:10.1126/science.1146676

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MICROFINANCE AND NON BANKING FINANCIAL COMPANIES IN INDIA  ARE NOT AT ALL A BLESSINGS, IT IS RATHER  A BIG CRUSE.  IT SHOULD BE STOPPED IMMEDIATELY BY LAW 

Author-:

Professor Dr Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya 

MD (University of Calcutta) Fic Path , WBMES (retired)

Ex Retired Professor and Head, Dept. of Pathology department, Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, 108,C.R.Avenue, Kolkata -700073, West Bengal, india

Department of Health and Family Welfare  (WBMES wing)Government of West Bengal Equivalent officiating Rank retired -: "Special Secretary " to the Government of West Bengal

Ex- Principal of JMN Medical College, JMN Educational  and Research Foundation, Chakdaha, District- Ranaghat ,West Bengal India 

At present - (since 6.02.2023): Posted as 

Professor and Head of Pathology Department ( every year renewal contractual but full time),

JIS School of Medical Sciences and Research ( under JIS University , Nilgange, Agarpara,  24 parganas North )santragachi, Howrah District, West Bengal

Residence-:

Mahamaya apartment, Block -B, flat 3, 2nd floor ,Mahamayatala, 54 NSC Bose Road, Post office- Garia , Kolkata 700084, West Bengal india

Email profpkb@yahoo.co.in( mostly used) 

prof.pranab@Gmail.com  

whatsapp & mobile -: 9231510435.

MICROFINANCE was once meant to lift people (basically women) to bring  out of poverty, but many  women ultimately saying today , it's become rather a curse for their life , Wolf  for many indian citizens, specially  for poors, economically week  sections citizens ,( illiterate , semi illiterate people, job less people,  small/ smallest scale business enterprise people,marginal firmers, marginal people, small grocery shopkeepers and for startup small business people, street hawkers , daily wage labourers, small traders )  and they must be  much more cautious about evil effects of  accepting /  taking any  microfinance  loans personally or and on gosthi basis any usurious private loans from various Financial NGOs, companies,  Non Banking Financial corporation ( NBFC) / organisation/ any usurious private loan providers companies ( registered under company act 1956 or on section 8 of 2013 company acts ) who don't possess proper Reserve Bank of India's ( RBI) permission papers for doing money lending business in any state of India including in West Bengal as like "Bandhan Bank" in West Bengal ,"Ashirbad Microfinance Ltd , "Nigam Sudha Microfinance Ltd " ,"Progoti Microfinance company Ltd,"" Lokenath Trusts",  "Dishari', "Swayam Krishi Sanstha" ,"Janalakshmi Financial Services", "Ujjivan", "Adani Financial Services",  "Small Finance Bank", "Utkarsh Small Finance Bank", "Arohan Financial Services", "Fusion Microfinance", "Equitas", "Small Finance Bank", "Grameen Koota Financial Services", "UGRO Financial Services". "ASA international India microfinance Ltd ",  "Sarala" ,"Mohor, "SKS Microfinance Ltd", "Village", "Share Microfinance""Annapurna Finance" ," SKS microfinance, Utkarsha small finance Bank ' ,etc etc for some examples ( there are about 96 or more Microfinance institutions operating in India and 35,473 NBFC companies in India with or  without RBI permission to carry on money lenders business as up to 2013 records and 46 MFI companies working in state of West Bengal )  and many such MFI / NBFC are  operating  presently  in  the West Bengal State of India and in other provinces of  India too. Microfinance institutions or MFI can be set up with minimum Rs 5 cores capital ( to be deposited with RBI) and they can lend money when one borrower's household annual income is maximum from Rs 1,20,000 to Rs 300,000 INR  and maximum limit of such loans must be 50% of monthly household income once ,as per Reserve Bank of India guideline 1st April 2022 ( memo no DoR.FIN.REC.95/03.10.038/2021-22 dated 14.03.2022)  and interest rate must not be more than 20% per year ( ie  if a borrower take Rs 20,000/ as loan, he or she will pay monthly Rs 970/ in 24  instalments including both Principal amount and interest amount loan as per annexure II of para 6.3 of RBI guidelines order dated 14.03.2022, mentioned above )  and they must have licence from RBI as permission to operate as non Banking money lenders. MFI or microlenders  may take loans from Nationalised Bank and they pay 14% maximum interest for their loan per year. Those money lenders, either MFI or NBFI companies or usurious private money lenders are illegal by Indian  laws ( without RBI permission or registration and not following RBI guidelines)  and to be informed to local police by General Diary or by FIR  if operating in a local area Village by villagers or by person who takes such illegal loan from them . 

Since 2017 onwards,Microfinance companies without RBI licence  are mushrooming in West Bengal state  (in urban areas, semi urbans,in rural villages) , putting poor  and marginal  people in life long distress and trouble, damage, irreparable loss to family providing them loan ( say for  50,000/INR a time  ) but  with huge illegal percentage interests on weekly or monthly basis ( interest rate of MFI/ NBFC microlenders  varies from  30% to 200%  yearly ,or weekly or monthly instead of yearly and  that the Indian laws does not ever permitted such illegal money lending to any borrowers with that very high interest charge beyond RBI guided interest level ( less than 20% yearly interest maximum for registered MFIs )  for microfinance company ( on yearly basis but never on weekly or monthly basis ) Maximum Microfinance companies have thus  today mutated ''to become rather big exploiters of man and woman in society to make their cores and cores of money as their profit,  exploiting poor of the poor by their usurious interest rates, providing multiple loans through gosthi ( collection of poor women or men in a group ) given  to  a borrower without due diligence, lack of transparency, RBI regulation and use of coercive methods for recovery by threats, creating nuisance in front of house,  or filing court  suits as a frauds or a defaulter or not following their company conditions of loan repayment" ( as per RBI rules 2022, all Recovery Agents ( RA) must fullfill the laid down criteria stated in clause 7.5.1 to 7.5.5 along  with local police verification identity and permission for recovery of loan from borrowers and other wise thet can not be appointed as field workers or RA) . They often get signed borrowers with their husband in white paper as their company documents and a notebook of taking and paying loan , kept with them( but never with borrowers). Thus a borrower never knows how much of the principal loan and how much of  principal and interest they cleared of their taken loan and they are in loan debt trapped . 

In my opinion ,and in many civilised conscious people opinions , these all microfinance companies are  really a big  curse toward poor socioeconomic class people who are/ were however in need of cash money to run or to help their family' for emergency medical treatment, to run a small  business, from where they earned their previous livelihood,and they took loan  under toughest situation, they faced during COVID -19 periods of State/ pan India lockdown ,they were bound of taking loan with very high percentage of weekly interest  personally or through forming  gosthi of 25/ 40 illiterate or semi illiterate married women and poor men or to those and these company' s salaried field agents or dalal completely misguided  these needy  people or their less educated/ less intelligent wives , children  (whose house men  lost their service and or faced loss in their small business or in cultivation during the covid pandemic period of 2019 November to 2022 December or experienced loss in the business and cultivation) about the false benefit of microfinance or gosthi loans.  These microfinance companies thus making lured to these people of urban, suburban, villages people of West Bengal/  india to take easy loan with very high unusual interest rate (>25% to 35% yearly and  120% to 200% monthly interest rate by usurious money lenders (reference no 5 ) and when covid 19 is now almost over in 2023,  market opened ,these microfinance companies salaried people/  Recovery agents/ Dalal kicking doors  giving huge pressure, threatens  to persons/ family members who took loan ( borrowers)  from their companies by  himself/ or by herself name ( later bounded to draw loans in names of others members ie within gosthi peoples) and then from outside loan providers and as a result it became vicious cycle for them to take continuous loans after loans from neighbours and these people are moving around paying interests of such loans only  but never the principal amount of loan  they borrowed .  Ultimately they are selling all their minor assets including wedding gold , even utensils and facing domestic violences etc  "…I  had to sell off  my wedding ornaments, my 20 years old unmarried daughter's gold ornaments, keeping on taking loans after loan to pay only interest part from one to another private money lenders to clear up my MFI loan interest- Mrs Swapna Bhattacharya -wife of Ritwick Bhattacharya  -  a married 48 years old women,- mother of a 20 years old daughter,  a woman borrower of residence-  Purbapalli Village , Post office- Sodepur , District -24 parganas (north ) ,PS -Khardha,Kolkata -110,  says me with a sad smile and next  bursting into tears  . "….I had to take microfinance loan ( RS 60,000/INR) first  from Bandhan Bank , then from  Ashirwad Microfinance Ltd  , first time in 2019 Oct with only knowledge of my husband Ritwik,  but others  members of my in laws family were in total darkness, after being members of a ( 22 married women group) gosthi of our locality "Bankimpally " at, Sodepur ,under  Panihati municipality constituency ,being lured for easy to get loans and being highly convinced by field agent's of Bandhan Bank and Ashirwad Microfinance Ltd in sodepur and khardah, panihati and by gosthi members,  to feed and  for medical treatment purpose of my 84 years old mother ( Mrs Shanti Adhikari ,wife of late Anil Adhikari,  who is living alone  )  and to support and look after my two younger sister's (Savita Chakraborty wife of krishnendu chakrabarty &  Bandana Dey wife of late Raju Dey ) family, during lock down periods of COVID- 19 ( 2019 -22)  and to meet up MFI company's interest, i had to borrow loan successively from Mr. Tapan Saha of Loknath Trust ,Mr .  Chandan Saha of Nigam Sudha Microfinance Trust , Unity Welfare Society , Progoti , Beraberi Deshari, jiban Utthan Microfinance Ltd  operating ( I didn't knew that these MFI / NBFC companies / usurious money lenders are illegal money lenders  companies by laws  without RBI permission to operate in field )  operating in Sodepur , 24 parganas( north) ,Kolkata-110, West Bengal. I am now a debt trapped woman of around Rs 14 lakh INR . My husband Ritwik Bhattacharya of same address  with B.Com ( Calcutta University) degree ,50 years old ( he suffered in 1999 to 2005  from bipolar psychiatric illnesses- schizoid bipolar mood disorders  and was treated at Institute of Psychiatry at SSKM hospital Kolkata -20, with antipsychotics drugs lithium,risperidone , valproate, SSRI  drugs by his eldest MD doctor brother )  also was trapped and did loan from others non financial banking companies/ organisation when in 2020-2021 his small trade a start up business units ( within our home premises as his rehabilitation program -once set by his eldest doctor brother for him  to sustain our life and to get him engaged in working) run in losses during the COVID -19 pan and partial lockdown period in 2020 March to 2022 October and  he had to pay salaries and  bonus to his four marginal labours in lock down and compensation money settlement to a labour for loss of part of his index finger in a sudden machine accident, etc, though he could not sell his finished products in local markets for covid 19 lockdown and his loan status to these NBFC  companies now reached to another Rs 10 lakh ( as he stopped EMI since 2020 and now he has been summoned by court of laws for a settlement on 20th March 2023 ) . We both are now in great financial trouble for MFI and NBFC loans as their recovery agents and recovery field workers are almost daily knocking the door and we became ill doing overworking both day and night times since October 2022 to repay the loan . What I realised  now that we did a great blunder in our life ,trusting the field agents of Bandhan Bank and Ashirbad microfinance ltd  trusting that Microfinance loans are helping  for empowerment of poor women and their families . Rather it is a big curse for poor families.  I had to sell our kitchen utensils , all machines Ritwick purchased for his business and sometimes I had to deny our  food for days, unless we had some kind of monthly financial support of Rs 23,000/ per month from my husband's eldest brother-, a MD Pathology doctor by his profession ( now a WB  state govt. pension holder ) to feed us by sending his bank interest part of money ( he had as his superannuation benefits in march 2021), to sustain our life , so that we can make these loan repayments …." . 

And I had to steal average rupees 8000, to 10,000 since 2020 onwards even from his sent  money too, to pay up interest to personal private money lenders through my sister's , without knowledge of any one in my in-laws house. A great sin i had to do to meet up loan interest 

There are many such stories ( at least 54 studied cases by this author) with me in Kolkata, Howrah , Coach Bihar ,Nadia, North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Murshidabad ( ref no 12) , Nadia, Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal state . 

Microfinance was once meant to lift up people out of poverty, but the women of Howrah, (  in Shibpur Constituency ( ref no 3) ,in Panihati constituency,  in Beldanga Village  of East Burdwan  ( reference no  10) say it's become now a big curse for many families even of entire village , who are in microfinance or NBFC debt Trap 

This city, West Bengal, has been overrun by loan agents/ field workers from India's illegal Microfinance or NBFC industries . In the real world ,instead of women getting empowered MFI are causing them in life trouble from microfinance companies,  because there is no system of finding out whether beneficiaries have also taken loans from other MIF institutes or private usurious loans to clear up their loans. So the borrower goes on taking loans after loans  from one institute to others or from personal/  private illegal usurious  money lenders with very high interest.They are bound to do that.  Then they are falling into severe debt traps of 15 to 20 lakhs for say only 1.2 lakh / INR loan from a microfinance company from Ashirbad or Bandhan Bank . This author have personally seen some people changing their addresses overnight, absconded, attempting suicide by various means , selling their all  properties to get rid of these debts .He saw microfinance loans are root cause of domestic violence between husband and wife also . The microfinance companies give loans mostly to married  women. Most of the married women must be at loggerheads with their husbands to repay the loans. This gives rise to domestic violences and injury, even head injuries . 

 From the study at grass-root level , this author  personally felt that very few people had actually benefited from this initiative of microfinance loan in the Indian context . It is rather  few trillion dollar business of companies based on poor families of india who needs cash money 

Below are a few examples of what happened for microfinance loans that destroyed families. Most of these microfinance companies are not however  licensed or registered  or have permission under Reserve Bank of India for operating their  business in a state  which is mandatory ( except Recently  Utkarsha microfinance , Bandhan Bank after deposition of 500 crores. Bandhan however started its business with 2 lakh INR and three staff  in 2009 as a small MFI unit  and now owner of 10 thousands of crores INR loan  and where from that huge profits came to Bandhan Bank owner Mr Chandra shekhar Ghosh? )  and  doing all illegal transactions of money with NGO licence or NBFC licences under section 8 of company act 2013 or under 1956 company act  which do not permit for money lending business in India.

West Bengal is one of the top five states in India in terms of the gross loan portfolio and out of ten districts with high amount of loans, nine—North 24 Parganas , South 24 Parganas, Murshidabad, Jalpaiguri, Nadia, Bardhhaman, Hooghly, Howrah and Cooch Behar— are from West Bengal where these microfinance companies operate through their  salaried feild people or agents  field workers , targeting illiterate  semi literate poor married women of any locality in the name of social or families welfare women empowerment women upliftment with their loan through a gosthi system of 12/25/40 women.

According to a report published in Business Standard, “In its state-wise ticket size and macroeconomics analysis, the agency said it has observed that the average outstanding per unique borrower is the highest in States of West Bengal and Assam, and this has been the case at least for the past three years (2019-2023)”. It also reports that “40-50 per cent of the microfinance loan portfolio in both Assam and West Bengal are from one or two institutions. (sic, Bandhan, Ashirbad )” And it indicates the monopoly of 2/ or 3 institutions in the microfinance sectors.

Tamil Nadu State has displaced West Bengal to emerge as the largest State in terms of the outstanding profit portfolio of microfinance loans. According to MFIN Micrometer Q4 of FY 2021-22, a quarterly report published by Microfinance Institutions Network (MFIN), the gross loan portfolio (GLP) of Tamil Nadu was as of March 31, 2022 stood at ₹36,806 crore. It was followed by Bihar (₹35,941 crore) and West Bengal (₹34,016 crore). At the end of Q3 of FY2022, West Bengal topped the chart with the highest outstanding profit portfolio of loans at ₹32,880 crore, followed by Tamil Nadu (₹32,359 crore).

The top 10 States (based on total microcredit universe) constituted  82.4 per cent of total GLP of the industry. West Bengal was followed by Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. According to the report, around  64 per cent of the microfinance portfolio is concentrated in the East, Northeast, and Southern regions of India.

The 41st issue of the Micrometer report said the microfinance industry served 5.8 crore unique borrowers, through 11.3 crore loan accounts. The overall microfinance industry has a total GLP of ₹2,85,441 crore as of March 31, 2022, an increase of 10 per cent year-on-year (YoY) from ₹2,59,377 crore as of March 31, 2021. 

Lender-wise distribution of microfinance loan-:

Lender-wise distribution of micro-loans shows that 12 banks held the largest share of the portfolio in micro-credit with a total loan outstanding of ₹1,14,051 crore, or 40 per cent of the total microcredit universe. NBFC-MFIs are the second largest providers of micro-credit with a loan amount outstanding of ₹1,00,407 crore, accounting for 35.2 per cent of the total industry portfolio. Small finance banks (SFBs) have a total loan amount outstanding of ₹48,314 crore, accounting for 16.9 per cent, followed by non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) at 6.9 per cent share. Other MFIs account for 1 per cent of the universe. 

The report noted that the proportion of NBFC-MFI portfolios in the universe portfolio increased by 4.1 per cent to 35.2 per cent as of March 31, 2022, though banks continued to be the main contributors. The geographical distribution of the portfolio also witnessed a change with a decrease in the share of the east and northeast region of India by 3.3 per cent, while the share of the south and north regions increased by 1.3 per cent each.

“The microfinance industry has shown good progress during Q4 of  FY2022, building on the momentum profit  created in Q3. The portfolio quality has improved significantly as compared to the end of Q1 FY2022, when the second wave of Covid-19 had caused widespread stress across the country,” Alok Misra, CEO & Director, MFIN said, in a statement. “The announcement of harmonised regulations for microfinance, near normalisation of collection efficiency and recent verdict of the Supreme Court stating that NBFC regulation is under the sole purview of the RBI are hugely positive trends, which will see good growth in 22-23,” he added. 

Several previous studies conducted all over the world  concluded,  where microfinance has been applied, showed that microfinance companies' microcredit loan was not as effective as it was expected in getting poor people and their families out of poverty . Rather it submerged many  family members in tremendous financial curse and destroyed  families who took MFI/ NBFC / private loans .  According to the American Economic journal: applied economics; microfinance benefits were rather oversold to the public in relation to their risks, in India, Bangladesh. The research on psycho-social impact on microfinance was not given  however enough attention, instead the get out of poverty quickly get a loan to run a small business project was overemphasised, such that negative repercussions of MIF loans  were unforeseen.Therefore according to this author  microfinance seems to benefit more to the givers of loan ( ie owner of the MIF companies)  than to the receivers or borrowers . Many people who have evaluated the impact of microfinance have based it on( ?)financial success , not its social, familial and psychological impact i.e. the pressure of work individuals are under to ensure they pay back the interest of loan. Not enough assessment is done to ensure balance in recovery as it undermines emotional trauma and pressure. Introduction of debt to those with a stable income is such a burden; now imagine introducing debt to vulnerable, overwhelmed individuals facing masses of challenges such as food security and uncertainty. The impact can only be estimated as devastating.

If this author looks back  at past in 2010s in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh districts 30 to 45 pepole committed suicide due to microfinance loans, due to coercive method of repayment of microfinance loan by MFI .These suicide were reported from different districts of Andhra Pradesh within 45 days from January 2010 . The story was that MFI companies charged exorbitant interest on the principal amount and borrowers were caught in a situation where they were forced to borrow from another money lender to repay the existing loan . The borrowers were caught in vicious cycle of loans which they can not repay this forcing them to end their life (Ref no 11)

From West Bengal,in 2021, Mr Sadhan Sinha 40 years old (who used to  earn Rs 15000 to 2000 a month) of Bindupara Village of Murshidabad District ,West Bengal ( Ref no 4, 6) is another victim example in 2021. He  took a loan of Rs 1 lakh from a MIF operating in murshidabad and had been unable to pay his monthly instalments of Rs 3,400 for May and June 2021 and he begged for a few days’ time but recovery agents did not listen. The recovery agents sat down outside the house, using abusive languages and saying they would not leave without collecting the dues. "...My husband felt so humiliated that he killed himself…,” said  weeping Mamoni, mother of two sons, aged 18 and 15.( Ref no 12) Sadhan’s decision to take the loan in January 2021 and his subsequent suicide underline the fact that how millions of ordinary Indians were taken unawares by the covid- 19 pandemic’s second wave, blamed partly on the central government’s short-sightedness in prematurely declaring victory over the virus and letting its guard down.The Reserve Bank of India however  tried to give all kinds of loan  borrowers relief by instructing all banks and all financial institutions to consider a debt recasting, provided EMI dues have been cleared before February 2020 ie before the first state or pan India lock down anounced for COVID-19 by government. But, as Mr Sadhan’s death suggests, not every borrower had access to the relief by these MFIs companies, only because of lack of knowledge and information ,as they are mostly less educated and poor people. While the debt recasting is a prerogative of  banks or the micro finance  companies or NBFCs , the problem is that most people who are in dire need of the facility don’t know about RBI directions on this issues 

There was relief to those borrowers who had opted for loan payment restructuring under the RBI scheme as well. The RBI permitted the MFIs ,NBFCs ,Banks and to all lending entities to modify the plans of repayment of loans and increase the moratorium period minimum by another minimum two years with minimum EMI .The RBI said that after all MFI,NBFC  banks ,receive a restructuring proposal from any  borrower to repay principal loan, they must have to take a decision on the application of borrowers within 30 days and  in favour of borrowers. This will happen when the lending institutions and the borrower will agree to work out a resolution plan according to the capacity of borrowers to repay the loan after maintenance of his family at minimum daily wages he or she earns.  After this, the resolution plan must be finalised and implemented within 90 days from the date of invocation( ref 13)  

Debt may be good but never in the state of indebtedness! It has both qualitative and quantitative implications. Propensity to debt, especially “indebtedness” is a matter of big concern. Impact of indebtedness varies both in degrees and dimensions. The state of being in debt (indebtedness) covers both personal and behavioural finance and is blended with positive and negative outcomes. On the minor positive end , people who have easy access to money to debt from the bank MFIs may have some chances for temporary financial wellness, provided the money is used for productive , gain business. The negative outcomes  of money lending are desertion, huge distress and depression of the indebted consumers. Many times, such incidence results in forced migration as observed in the cases of absconding. The extreme end of indebtedness leads to suicidal tendencies often culminating at self-killing! Such unpleasant incidents potentially affect the present as well as the future of a person. Sometimes the shock of indebtedness cascades down to a couple of generations. Recent agitations of the Tamil farmers, protesting for the announcement of a drought relief package and loan waiver, are evidences to what debt-distress is and what it can do!(14) 

Conclusion -: 

In conclusion, to me  and for Poor's , job less people , illiterate, semi literate people, people of urban, semi urban, rural villages  MICROFINANCE COMPANIES  IS NOT AT ALL A BLESSING IT IS RATHER  A BIG CRUSE.  IT SHOULD BE STOPPED IMMEDIATELY and MFI company owners/ their agents  ( Money landers )  to be punished  for illegal money lending to borrowers with exorbitant high interest rate beyond nationalised  bank interest rate or RBI Bank interest rate fixed for Microfinance registered companies with RBI  .Government of West Bengal  and Govt of India should take interest  in sensitising  people about the curse of microfinance loan  otherwise the poor people will go more poorer and borrower families will be destroyed.

References_: 

 ( URL to read on curses of microfinance loan to the society at large through out india)

1. Moumita Alam "Microfinance debt trap exploits Bengal villagers" People's  Review Friday June 25021

https://www.peoplesreview.in/economy/2021/06/after-chit-fund-scams-microfinance-debt-trap-exploits-bengal-villagers/ 

2. BL Chennai  bureau "Tamil Nadu pips West Bengal to become the largest State in terms of outstanding microfinance loan portfolio" The Hindu business line June 15,2022

https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/tamil-nadu-pips-west-bengal-to-become-the-largest-state-in-terms-of-outstanding-microfinance-loan-portfolio/article65529419.ece 

3.  Muskan Web Top 10 Microfinance in West Bengal December 17 2022

https://www.muskanweb.com/2022/12/top-10-microfinance-in-west-bengal.html 

4)https://www.newsclick.in/West-Bengal-Sharecropper-Dies-Suicide-due-Microfinance-Debt-Many-Affected-Loans 

5) soutik Biswas India's micro-finance suicideepidemic BBC News Medak Andhra Pradesh 16 December 2010

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11997571 

6)https://www.ijser.org/paper/Microfinance-A-blessing-or-a-cruse.html 

7)https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8250239/ 

8)https://www.muskanweb.com/2022/12/top-10-microfinance-in-west-bengal.html

9) Microfinance - A blessing or a cruse

International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 7, July-2013 345ISSN 2229-5518IJSER © 2013 http://www.ijser.org

10)sandip chaudhury West Bengal Share croper dies of suicide due to microfinance debt ,many affected loans News click 22nd February 2022 https://www.newsclick.in/West-Bengal-Sharecropper-Dies-Suicide-due-Microfinance-Debt-Many-Affected-Loans

11) Thirty commits sucide in 45 days to escape microfinance agents The economic Times  Oct 15 2010

12)Alamgir Hossain 'Plumber dies by suicide as EMI collection agents squat outside" samsergang in murshidabad The Telegraph 24.06.2021

https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/plumber-dies-by-suicide-as-emi-collection-agents-squat-outside-at-a-murshidabad-village/cid/1819882# 

13) special correspondent "RBI re-opens one-time debt restructuring scheme for individual borrowers "The Telegraph 6.05.2021

https://www.telegraphindia.com/business/covid-rbi-re-opens-one-time-debt-restructuring-scheme-for-individual-borrowers/cid/1814669# 

14)Pattnaik, Debidutta, Indebtedness – From the Perspective of Commercial Microfinance in India (July 28, 2017). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3010244  or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3010244 

Published in E journal of legal services in India

https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-10805-microfinance-companies-in-india-are-not-at-all-a-blessings-it-is-rather-a-big-curse-it-should-be-stopped-immediately-by-law.html

Published in vernacular ( Bengali language ) in a daily Bengali news paper published from Kolkata named "Duranta Barta " published serially on its page no 4

27.03.23,( first part)

28.03.23( second part )

on 1.04.23( 3Rd part )

4th part (fourth part) on 5.04.2023,

5th part ( fifth part) on 06.04.2023

6th part ( sixthpart ) on 9.04.2023,

7th( seventh part on 11.04.2023

URL from where they can be down loaded

https://durantbarta.com/e-newspaper

second part

First part

third part

In  UPES ( University of Petrolium and Energy studies) School Of Design,  Derhadoon, india yours and your parents' dream to make you a Fashion Designer or Designer with a BDes degree or MDes or integrated MDes degree will turn into a nightmare for both you and your parents. 

PROFESSOR DR. PRANAB KUMAR BHATTACHARYA MD ( university of Calcutta ) FIC Path & Retired WBMES CADRE OFFICER OF HEALTH DEPARTMENT,GOVT OF WEST BENGAL( Retired)

His Designation was-:

Retired Professor and Head of Pathology Department, Academic building, 2nd floor, Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, 108,C.R.Avenue, Kolkata -700073, West Bengal, india ,Department of Health and Family Welfare  (WBMES wing) of  Government of West Bengal, now pensioners of government of West Bengal 

(Equivalent officiating Rank  and with executive power when retired -: "Special Secretary " to the Government of WestBengal)

Ex- Principal/ Dean of JMN Medical College, JMN Educational  and Research Foundation, uttarpanchpota, Chakdaha, District- Nadia ,West Bengal, India, pin 741222-  a UG Medical College under Public Private partnership model of Health Department ,Government of West Bengal (under 1rsr letter of permission from National Medical council  and affiliated with WBUHS)

At Present  his designation- (since 6.02.2023 to ):

Professor and Head of Pathology Department ( every year renewal contractual ,but full time),

JIS School of Medical Sciences and Research ( under JIS University , Nilgange, Agarpara,  24 parganas North ) jagancha santragachi, Howrah District, West Bengal pin 7111302AUG Medical College under public private partnership model of Health department( WBMES wing) Government of West Bengal under 1rst letter of permission from National Medical council under affiliated with JIS university 

Email profpkb@yahoo.co.in

whatsapp & mobile -: 9231510435

My advice to all aspirant students of West Bengal state of India who are or will be dreaming , dreaming to study Bachelor of Design course (BDes ) at University of Petrolium and Eergy Studies ( called popularly as UPES   bidhouli, Dehradun, india -) as a retired ,38 years long experienced  National Medical Councils , Ministry of Health New Delhi ( NMC)  recognised a Post Graduate and Doctoral level teacher, in Designation of Professor and Head of Pathology departments in the WBMES cadre  officers of government of West Bengal, at various top ranking Medical colleges in the West Bengal state;  b) as  an ex Principal /Dean of a Medical College under Letter of permission from NMC  New Delhi ; c) as the retired "ex officio special secretary to government of West Bengal" and d) as  Ex Members Secretary, and Member of Board of Studies of West Bengal University of Health Sciences kolkata( a UGC recognised university under section 2(f) and NMC recognised university that

,1) Don't ever opt for UPES, School of Design ( SOD)  BDes course ( fashion design)  or MDes courses at least  students who are dreaming  to be degree- Holder fashion designer from the West Bengal state.of india -This is a honest advice to students of the state of West Bengal of a 68 + years old academician and ex administrator and long years Professor in pathology in State of West Bengal

The UPES as University, though it is a recognised  University by the university Grants commission or UGC

 ( UPES recognition letter came in the year 2004 and no further inspection was probably conducted from the UGC ,through application to UGC by the UPES ) under UGC section 22A, and 2 (f) ( but without any government financial aid) of 1956 UGC act, it doesn't probably follow any rules and regulations or guidelines of UGC ( so far this bloggers knowledge is now ) regarding its students class  attendance system  as per UGC norms in the hard copies roll call recording systems in a roll call book/ khata within class by teachers itself  signed by teachers or by the CCTV recording  system while classes are on or by log book for practical classes (rather UPES has its peculiar own class attendance system of punching students identity card issued  by university authorities, in a  departmental machine  (called biometric attendance that are meant by UGC for only teachers and staffs by UGC letters to all universities under it ) , The biometric machine which may remain  either defective, may remain non-functional for some days in any months, or a student  may not be habituated  expertised to punch his or her identity cards effectively or the ICard may be lost and thus  biometric attendance of students may show any of you  students absent from class and  it  may results deficiency in required classes attendance percentage for end semester,barring you students to appear in regular university end semesters examination ( if  and when a student attendance is less than 75% in general cases or with a medical certificate less than 67%) and make one student marked "F" / Repeat ie failed and make her / him bound to appear in supplimentary examinations system with further payment of examination fees (preseny of Rs 3500 for each subjects marked" F at present ) in each end semester results declared. UPES SOD  do not also follow probably UGC rules and regulations in university end semesters examinations system too ( UPES has its own peculiar regulations /guidelines for University end semister exam's and also in their evaluation system of  declaration of each end semesters results and in  supplimentary exam & no body knows whether that very their own examination rules and regulation which is being followed there, is  approved by the UGC at all or not and they remain always silent with that question when asked officially by students parents), in theirs faculty recruitment and promotion system, ( as per UGC  guidelines 2022 of teachers eligibility qualification criteria) .The HOD of fashion Design of School Of Design is a cluster HOD (who is just holding MDes degree from NIFT, without any recognised PhD degree-  surprisingly became an Associate Professor and cluster HOD  and surprisingly seems to be "all in all" in Power in SOD including are appointed as examiners in  all semesters of BDes, MDes and integrated MDes course in UPES ) and some faculty, may be in real vindictive moods  or in harrasment attitudes to some few/ some ones students from West Bengal state and make students from West Bengal often harrassed using  some times rude behaviour some times using abusing, insulting words,   making him or her  mentally high level tortured, harrassed, even not allowing  to use laboratory works to complete practical projects of university semesters , make you students getting plucked and plucked in semester exams from 3rd semester onward in multiple numbers subjects ( say total 14/ 15  subjects in 3rd, 4tg 5th and 6th semesters,even in subjects you have above 60 % even 83% class attendance in their biometric attendance system and secured  good percentage marks in internal assessment and the HOD who takes all  decisions alone regarding a student's fate in successful passing or getting supplimentry, put them in several times repeated supplementary and supplementary examination in many subjects in almost all end semesters (This is based on HOD notion on a student ). Often HODs and  faculties don't co operate with students to finish students works in time. These are  just to earn money from students / students parents with an ulterior motive not to complete his/ her course in sessions scheduled due time and extending times 

beyond schedule sessions period for further deposit of tution fees and other fees ( almost Rs 4.1 lakh or more in two semesters in a year ie in two semesters in a year ) , often causes mental ragging to a targeted student by HOD or faculty if you are obedient , very honest ,perfect and remain timid and respectful in your nature which most Bengal students are .They do all these verbally without keeping any proof or allowing you to take proof or record

In The UPES,  university end semester examinations sem 1- to sem 8 ( they call it Jury ) controller of examination (COE ) office UPES  do not appoint any external examiners as per UGC  guidelines in subjects concerned examination (practical and viva ) from recognised institution of outside uttarakhand state or instead of outside state externals do not even appoint  two recognised internal examiners from others institutions of uttarakhand State ( externals are necessary to make an unbiased results) and decision of the cluster Head is final decision one there in all  eight semesters exams, in all subjects ,( how is it possible beyond any ones understanding) regarding a students  fate for passing in grade A+ to C + or fail ( marked F or repeat) and no other examiners often appointed from same department by COE office has probably any say over the HOD while in computation of results in final sheet ( how is that possible no one cares?? )and even if review of Marked "F "subjects papers in semester  results are applied for by the students or parents or guardian on behalf of students with payment (if applied with INR Rs 250 for each subjects reviewed) it is conducted by the same examiners of the same institute by COE office,declared officially by COE under his or her seal ( which are against UGC guidelines for examination and in review system of papers) and after reviewing marks remaining mostly unchanged to maximum number of students applied for review and in one or two cases students who once was marked "F" failed gets A+ grade(?) or A grade or B grade and that is also limited up to 2nd semester students .Rest remaining unchanged. Then why is review mechanism exist? Just To earn money from students??

The respectable  only Professor in SOD & Principal or Dean of School of Design UPES Derhadoon, honb Vice Chancellor of UPES, The Registrar of UPES or The COE of UPES don't bother to give ever any official reply  or answers of students gurdian / parents' official written complain / grievances email or letters  even if your gurdian / parents send multiple official e-mails with documents attached there or post  hard copies of grievances with  attached documents by registered Post or by courier post received by them ; even if  yours gurdian/ parents'  complain or grievances e mail / letter are sent as" Daime Official letters "from your  gurdian/ parents high ex- government officials ranks or present ranks ( may be Govt ranking and designation , may be semi govt ranking and designation of government or semi government or may be from others most respectable civil official  designation/ rank or  as parents of students or as gurdian) they though recive letter, don't respond  verbally or officially, even they don't pick up yours or yours parents or guardian telephonic calls for any discussion on any issues against them. They  try to put all blames on shoulder of students if you ask  officially why such irregularities  goes on there and  they hide their own faculties fault , rather becomes vindictive towards the students. They forget that students parents are paying huge money ( almost 16 lacks INR for BDes fashion design degree to purchase from a private universities and they are vender for it and students parents are consumer of final product the graduation certificate in schedule sessions period and the students and his or her gurdian are paying to UPES university not the school of Design authority 

The UPES account office sent students or students parents or guardian  by email Letters for payment only their tuition fees examination fees other fees in time and computer generated recipts of money

A totally business  private university UPES is 

Please remember In UPES, SOD your and yours parents dream to make you a fashion designer with BDes degree or MDes degree will turn ultimately a nightmare for both you and your parents.